Ohio History Central - Recent changes [en]

Communist Party

2013-05-20T21:49:33Z

Columbus, Ohio

2013-05-20T21:38:04Z

Clovis Culture

2013-05-20T21:28:59Z

Gable, Clark

2013-05-20T21:27:06Z

Clarence A. Crane

2013-05-20T21:25:25Z

Crane, Clarence A.

2013-05-20T21:24:46Z

Civilian Conservation Corps

2013-05-20T21:22:40Z

Civil Rights Movement

2013-05-20T21:15:07Z

Cincinnati, Ohio

2013-05-20T20:52:43Z

Kettering, Charles F.

2013-05-20T20:38:13Z

Coolidge, Calvin

2013-05-20T20:34:10Z

Chris Daugherty

2013-05-20T20:23:33Z

Battle of Lumbarton

2013-05-20T20:22:24Z

Beaver Wars

2013-05-20T20:12:11Z

Battle of Tippecanoe

2013-05-20T20:05:28Z

Battle of the Thames

2013-05-20T19:54:43Z

Battle of the Sandusky

2013-05-20T19:51:59Z

Battle of the Olentangy

2013-05-20T19:49:52Z

Battle of Shiloh

2013-05-20T19:40:26Z

Battle of Piqua

2013-05-20T19:37:19Z

Battle of Peckuwe

2013-05-20T19:31:04Z

Battle of Lumbarton

2013-05-20T19:27:48Z

Battle of Lake Erie

2013-05-20T19:24:41Z

Battle of Gettysburg

2013-05-20T19:08:28Z

Battle of Fort Henry

2013-05-20T19:04:18Z

Battle of Fort Donelson

2013-05-20T19:00:32Z

Battle of Fallen Timbers

2013-05-20T18:55:05Z

Welcome To Ohio History Central

2013-05-20T15:19:40Z

Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands

2013-05-18T16:31:59Z

Black Laws of 1807

2013-05-18T16:31:59Z

Ruth Seid

2013-05-18T16:31:59Z

Created page with "{{infobox | image = [[File:.]] }} <p>Ruth Seid was an American author of novels, short stories and television scripts.</p> <p>Seid was born on July 1, 1913, in Brooklyn, New ..."

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<p>Ruth Seid was an American author of novels, short stories and television scripts.</p>
<p>Seid was born on July 1, 1913, in Brooklyn, New York. She spent most of her youth in Cleveland, Ohio in a family of Russian Jewish immigrants who struggled to escape poverty. She was the valedictorian of her high school class.</p>
<p>After graduation, Seid became a professional writer. She wrote short stories and radio and television scripts to help support her family. When writing novels, she used the penname Jo Sinclair, and her works usually focused on class, racial, and homosexual issues. Her first novel, <em>Wasteland</em>, won the Harper & Brothers Prize for new writers in 1946. She wrote three additional novels, as well as her autobiography. Seid died on July 4, 1995.</p>
==See Also==
<div class="seeAlsoText">
*[[Cleveland, Ohio]]
*[[Ohio]]
*[[Radio]]
*[[Television]]
</div>
[[Category:History People]][[Category:The Cold War and Civil Rights]]
[[Category:Arts and Entertainment]]
[[Category:Women]]

Treaty of Paris (1783) (Transcript)

2013-05-18T16:31:59Z

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Treaty with the Wyandots, Shawnees, Senecas, and Ottawas (1818) (Transcript)

2013-05-18T16:31:59Z

Cedar Point

2013-05-18T16:31:59Z

Pee Pee Settlement

2013-05-18T16:31:58Z

Pond Law

2013-05-18T16:31:58Z

Terri Libenson

2013-05-18T16:31:58Z

Created page with "{{infobox | image = [[File:.]] }} <p>Terri Libenson is an American artist, graphic designer and cartoonist.</p> <p>Terri Libenson was born in 1970. After growing up in Kingst..."

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<p>Terri Libenson is an American artist, graphic designer and cartoonist.</p>
<p>Terri Libenson was born in 1970. After growing up in Kingston, a suburb of Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, she attended Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri and studied art history and illustration. After graduation, she moved to Cleveland, Ohio and became a writer and illustrator for American Greetings. </p>
<p>In 1996, she married Michael Davis, an information technology project manager. Libenson works as a graphic designer at her home in Lyndhurst, Ohio, where she lives with her husband and two daughters. </p>
<p>In March 2006, Libenson began to write and draw a cartoon strip. Called "The Pajama Diaries," the strip follows Jill Kaplan, an artist raising two children at home. In 2006, King Features began to market the strip, and by July 2006, more than twenty newspapers had begun to print the daily comic. Libenson hoped to show the difficulties and fun of raising a family in the modern world. Unlike many other comic strips, Libenson intends her characters to age with the passage of time.</p>
==See Also==
<div class="seeAlsoText">
*[[Ohio]]
*[[The Pajama Diaries]]
</div>
[[Category:History People]][[Category:Towards the 21st Century]]
[[Category:Arts and Entertainment]]
[[Category:Women]]

City Managers

2013-05-18T16:31:58Z

Montgomery, Ohio

2013-05-18T16:31:58Z

Cleveland Browns

2013-05-18T16:31:58Z

Republican Party

2013-05-18T16:31:58Z

Show changes

Dayton, Ohio, General Motors Strike (1996)

2013-05-18T16:31:58Z

Anhydrite

2013-05-18T16:31:58Z

Created page with "{{infobox | image = [[File:.]] }} <p>The name anhydrite comes from two Greek words meaning "without water." In fact, anhydrite is very "dry" and it easily ..."

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<p>The name anhydrite comes from two Greek words meaning "without water." In fact, anhydrite is very "dry" and it easily takes up water. When it absorbs water it changes to gypsum, a much more common mineral in Ohio. And in nature anhydrite forms when gypsum looses its water. This mineral is used in the production of the industrial chemical sulfuric acid, and in the production of paper.</p>
<h2>Facts</h2>
<table width="60%" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="2" border="0" class="facts">

<tr>
<td class="label">Chemical Composition:</td>
<td>Calcium sulfate (CaSO<sub>4</sub>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Mineral class:</td>
<td>Sulfates </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Crystallization:</td>
<td>Orthorhombic </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Crystal habit:</td>
<td>Commonly massive or granular ; tabular crystals uncommon.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Specific gravity:</td>
<td>2.9 - 3.0</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Hardness:</td>
<td>3 1/2</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Color:</td>
<td>colorless when pure; often colored with impurities. Color in Ohio: usually gray or blue</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Transparency:</td>
<td>Transparent to translucent</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Luster:</td>
<td>Vitreous if well crystallized, greasy if massive.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Streak:</td>
<td>white</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="label">Occurence:</td>
<td><img width="195" height="172" title="Map of anhydrite occurence" alt="Map of anhydrite occurence" src="images/naturalHistory/minerals/anhydritemap.gif" /></td>
</tr>

</table>
<p>Anhydrite occurs in Europe and North America. In Ohio, anhydrite is found in open stone excavations and underground mines in the northern part of the state. It occurs in massive beds or nodules along with dolomite or halite, and has been recorded in three counties.In northern Ohio massive beds or nodules of anhydrite occur with dolomite or halite in deeper quarry workings and mines. </p>
<div class="resources">
<h3>Resources</h3>
<ul>
<li>Sorrell, Charles A. <em> Rocks and Minerals;</em> Golden Press, New York, NY; 1973.</li>
<li>Pough, Frederick H. <em> A Field Guide to Rocks and Minerals; </em> Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA; 1976.</li>
<li>Carlson, Ernest H., ed. <em>Minerals of Ohio;</em> Ohio Division of Geological Survey, Columbus, OH; Bulletin 69; 1991.</li>
</ul>
</div>
==See Also==
<div class="seeAlsoText">
*[[Crystal]]
*[[Granular]]
*[[Habit]]
*[[Hardness]]
*[[Luster]]
*[[Massive]]
*[[Minerals of Ohio]]
*[[Nodule]]
*[[Ore]]
*[[Specific Gravity]]
*[[Streak]]
*[[Sulfur]]
*[[Translucent]]
*[[Transparent]]
</div>
[[Category:Natural History Geology]]

John Gyser

2013-05-18T16:31:57Z

Created page with "{{infobox | image = [[File:.]] }} <p>John Gyser was an African-American Ohioan who purportedly assisted slave catchers in returning fugitive slaves to their owners.</p> <p>Li..."

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<p>John Gyser was an African-American Ohioan who purportedly assisted slave catchers in returning fugitive slaves to their owners.</p>
<p>Little is known of Gyser's life except his role in the apprehension of nine fugitive slaves in Cincinnati, Ohio on June 15, 1854. The nine slaves, named Lewis, Lee, Shadrack, Anderson, Susan, Almeda, Wesley, John, and Sarah Jane, purportedly fled their owners' homes in Covington, Kentucky. They successfully crossed the Ohio River and entered Cincinnati. Gyser purportedly offered the fugitives assistance to Canada, first directing them to a stable, where the runaways were going to spend the night. Gyser then left the slaves and went to Covington, where he learned that the owners had offered a one thousand dollar reward. Gyser then took federal marshals to the runaway slaves. The fugitives, offering no resistance, surrendered. After a brief court hearing, the nine slaves were returned to their respective owners.</p>
<p>While John Gyser stands accused of assisting the slaveowners, at the time of the slaves' apprehension, the <em>Cincinnati Columbian</em> reported that no African-American man named John Gyser resided in Cincinnati. The newspaper claimed that a black Cincinnati resident actively aided the fugitives and that the owner of the stable actually turned in the fugitives.</p>
<p>While it is debated whether or not John Gyser really existed, his story illustrates the difficulties that African Americans faced in the United States of America in the early nineteenth century. While many Northern states had provisions outlawing slavery, runaway slaves did not necessarily gain their freedom upon arriving in a free state. Federal law permitted slaveowners to reclaim their runaway slaves, and Northerners sometimes assisted slaveowners in recapturing the fugitives.</p>
==See Also==
<div class="seeAlsoText">
*[[African Americans]]
*[[Cincinnati, Ohio]]
*[[Fugitive Slave Law of 1850]]
*[[Ohio]]
*[[Ohio River]]
*[[Runaway Slaves]]
</div>
==References==
<div class="referencesText">
#"Fugitive Slave Case." <em>Ironton Register</em>. 13 December 1860.
#Middleton, Stephen. "The Fugitive Slave Crisis in Cincinnati, 1850-1860: Resistance, Enforcement, and Black Refugees." Journal of Negro History 72 (Winter-Spring 1987): 20-32.
#Siebert, Wibur H. <em>The Underground Railroad: From Slavery to Freedom</em>. New York: Russell & Russell, 1898.
</div>
[[Category:History People]][[Category:Early Statehood]]
[[Category:African Americans]]
[[Category:Reform]]

Amy A. Kaukonen

2013-05-18T16:31:56Z

Created page with "{{infobox | image = [[File:.]] }} <p>In 1920, a sufficient number of states ratified the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. This amendment granted women t..."

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| image = [[File:.]]
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<p>In 1920, a sufficient number of states ratified the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. This amendment granted women the right to vote. Immediately upon receiving this right, some women began to pursue elected office. One woman who attained quick success was Amy Kaukonen. In 1921, Kaukonen was elected mayor in Fairport Harbor, Ohio, a small community in the northeastern portion of the state. Kaukonen was the first woman elected mayor of a community in Ohio. She also was one of the first women elected mayor in the entire United States. Most women who won election to political office initially served at the city level as city council members or on local schoolboards. As the twentieth century continued, Ohio women began to win offices at all levels of government.</p>
==See Also==
<div class="seeAlsoText">
*[[Nineteenth Amendment]]
*[[Ohio]]
*[[United States Constitution]]
</div>
[[Category:History People]][[Category:The Progressive Era]]
[[Category:Government and Politics]]
[[Category:Women]]

James Findlay

2013-05-18T16:31:55Z

Created page with "{{infobox | image = File:Findlay, James.jpg }} <p>James Findlay was an early Ohio military and political leader</p> <p>Findlay was born in Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, on O..."

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| image = [[File:Findlay, James.jpg]]
}}
<p>James Findlay was an early Ohio military and political leader</p>
<p>Findlay was born in Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, on October 12, 1770. He moved to Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1793 and became an attorney. Findlay played an important role in the politics of both the Northwest Territory and the State of Ohio. He served as a member of the Territorial Legislature. He also received federal appointments as United States Receiver of Public Monies in 1800 and United States Marshal in 1802. Cincinnatians elected Findlay as one of their representatives to the Ohio House of Representatives in 1803. </p>
<p>He also played an active role in the Ohio Militia with the rank of brigadier general. In this position, Findlay helped disrupt the western plans and projects of former Vice President Aaron Burr. In 1805 and 1806, and again in 1810 and 1811, he served as Mayor of Cincinnati. While serving as mayor, Findlay conceived the Findlay Market, which helped allow local farmers and businesses to sell their wares. During the War of 1812, Findlay rose to the rank of colonel in the Second Ohio Volunteer Infantry. Following the war, Findlay returned to politics. He was one of Ohio's members of the United States House of Representatives from 1825 to 1833 and was an unsuccessful candidate for governor in 1834. He died in Cincinnati on December 28, 1835.</p>
<p>For most of his political career, Findlay worked with the Democratic-Republican Party. When that party ended in the 1820s, Findlay joined Andrew Jackson in the Democratic Party. Although both of these political parties favored an agricultural society, Findlay did participate in the early industrialization of Ohio. He was an investor with William Henry Harrison, Jacob Burnet, and others in the Cincinnati Bell, Brass, and Iron Foundry.</p>
==See Also==
<div class="seeAlsoText">
*[[Jacob Burnet]]
*[[Aaron Burr]]
*[[Cincinnati, Ohio]]
*[[Democratic Party]]
*[[Democratic-Republican Party]]
*[[Early Industrialization]]
*[[Findlay Market]]
*[[James Findlay]]
*[[William H. Harrison]]
*[[Andrew Jackson]]
*[[Northwest Territory]]
*[[Ohio]]
*[[Ohio Militia]]
*[[Ohio Volunteer Infantry]]
*[[War of 1812]]
</div>
==References==
<div class="referencesText">
#Aaron, Daniel. <em>Cincinnati, Queen City of the West, 1819-1838</em>. Columbus: The Ohio State University Press, 1992. 
#Fess, Simeon D., ed. <em>Ohio: A Four-Volume Reference Library on the History of a Great State</em>. Chicago, IL: Lewis Publishing Company, 1937 
#Ratcliffe, Donald J. "The Role of Voters and Issues in Party Formation: Ohio, 1824." <em>Journal of American History</em> 59 (1972): 847-871.  
#Ross, Steven J. <em>Workers on the Edge: Work, Leisure, and Politics in Industrializing Cincinnati</em>. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1985.  
#Stevens, Harry Robert. <em>The Early Jackson Party in Ohio</em>. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1957.  
</div>
[[Category:History People]][[Category:Exploration To Statehood]]
[[Category:Frontier Ohio]]
[[Category:Government and Politics]]
[[Category:Military]]
[[Category:Statehood]]

Ohio's Early Historic Periods Timeline

2013-05-18T16:31:54Z

University of Findlay

2013-05-18T16:31:54Z

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 | caption = Communist Party leader Charles Emil Ruthenberg in casket surrounded by saluting children, 1927. Ruthenberg was the son of German immigrants and a native of Cleveland, Ohio. In 1909 he joined the Socialist Party and quickly became an active organizer. When the United States entered World War I in 1917 Ruthenberg's political activities became increasingly radical. He was arrested for speaking out against the war and began to identify with Russian communists. Eventually he became Secretary General of the Workers (Communist) Party of America. When he passed away his ashes were interred at the Kremlin in Moscow.
 }}
-<p>In 1919, the Communist Party of the United States of America was established. This party calls for the world's people to unite together to extend democracy, to eliminate racism and sexism, and to secure justice for all people. The Communist Party seeks to convert the United States government to a political and economic system based on socialism. Socialism is a governmental and economic system that emphasizes government ownership of all farms, factories, and other businesses. Under this system, the federal government would meet the basic needs of all people, although some people would have more political and economic power than others. Once a socialist system is in place, the Communist Party believes that the American government will naturally evolve into a communist one. A communist system would consist of a classless society, where everyone, no matter their gender or race, would work together for their common benefit. Under communism, everyone would be equal and own all property jointly.</p>
+In 1919, the Communist Party of the United States of America was established. This party calls for the world's people to unite together to extend democracy, to eliminate racism and sexism, and to secure justice for all people. The Communist Party seeks to convert the United States government to a political and economic system based on socialism. Socialism is a governmental and economic system that emphasizes government ownership of all farms, factories, and other businesses. Under this system, the federal government would meet the basic needs of all people, although some people would have more political and economic power than others. Once a socialist system is in place, the Communist Party believes that the American government will naturally evolve into a communist one. A communist system would consist of a classless society, where everyone, no matter their gender or race, would work together for their common benefit. Under communism, everyone would be equal and own all property jointly.
-<p>As World War I was ending, a fear-driven, anti-communist movement known as the First Red Scare began to spread across the United States of America. In 1917, Russia had undergone the Bolshevik Revolution. The Bolsheviks established a communist government that withdrew Russian troops from the war effort. Americans believed that Russia had let down its allies, including the United States, by pulling out of the war. In addition, communism was, in theory, an expansionist ideology, spread through revolution. It suggested that the working class would overthrow the middle class. </p>
-<p>Once the United States no longer had to concentrate its efforts on winning World War I, many Americans became afraid that communism might spread to the United States and threaten the nation's democratic values. Fueling this fear was the mass immigration of Southern and Eastern Europeans to the United States as well as labor unrest in the late 1910s, including the Great Steel Strike of 1919. Both the federal government and state governments reacted to that fear by attacking potential communist threats, including the Communist Party. They used acts passed during the war, such as the Espionage Act and the Sedition Act, to prosecute suspected communists. The Ohio legislature passed a law known as the Criminal Syndicalism Act, which allowed the state to prosecute people who used or advocated criminal activity or violence in order to obtain political change or to affect industrial conditions.</p>
+As World War I was ending, a fear-driven, anti-communist movement known as the First Red Scare began to spread across the United States. In 1917, Russia had undergone the Bolshevik Revolution. The Bolsheviks established a communist government that withdrew Russian troops from the war effort. People in the U.S. believed that Russia had let down its allies, including the United States, by pulling out of the war. In addition, communism was, in theory, an expansionist ideology, spread through revolution. It suggested that the working class would overthrow the upper classes.
-<p>With the Cold War's outbreak during the late 1940s, many Americans again feared communism's spread. A majority of Americans became convinced that the Soviet Union sought to spread its communist ideology around the world, overthrowing the United States' capitalist economy and representative democracy. During the Cold War, the United States military participated in several military conflicts, namely the Korean War and the Vietnam War, and the American government implemented several programs to prevent communism's expansion.</p>
-<p>Many Americans, including some Ohioans, persecuted members of the Communist Party during the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s. In 1951, the Ohio General Assembly implemented the Ohio Un-American Activities Committee, a joint committee of state representatives and senators charged with determining communism's influence in Ohio. The committee was based upon the federal government's House Un-American Activities Committee, and its members received sweeping powers to question Ohioans about their ties to communism. The committee was especially interested in determining the identity of Ohioans who were members of the Communist Party. Between 1951 and 1954, the Ohio Un-American Activities Committee, headed by House member Samuel Devine, questioned forty Ohioans, asking each person, &quot;Right now, are you an active member of the Communist Party?&quot; Every person refused to answer, citing the Fifth Amendment of the United States Constitution, which protects Americans against self-incrimination. Most of the accused were college students or people during the 1930s who advocated socialist or communist programs to end the Great Depression. Various grand juries eventually indicted the forty people, with fifteen of these accused being convicted for supporting communism. In 1952, the Ohio Un-American Activities Committee contended that 1,300 Ohioans were members of the Communist Party. Approximately seven hundred of these people supposedly resided near Cleveland and worked in various industrial occupations, while four hundred more resided in other northern Ohio cities. Only two hundred communists supposedly resided in central and southern parts of the state.</p>
+Once the United States no longer had to concentrate its efforts on winning World War I, many in the U.S. became afraid that communism might spread to the United States and threaten the nation's democratic values. Fueling this fear was the mass immigration of Southern and Eastern Europeans to the United States as well as labor unrest in the late 1910s, including the Great Steel Strike of 1919. Both the federal government and state governments reacted to that fear by attacking potential communist threats, including the Communist Party. They used acts passed during the war, such as the Espionage Act and the Sedition Act, to prosecute suspected communists. The Ohio legislature passed a law known as the Criminal Syndicalism Act, which allowed the state to prosecute people who used or advocated criminal activity or violence in order to obtain political change or to affect industrial conditions.
-<p>In 1953, the Ohio General Assembly, with Governor Frank Lausche's approval, extended the Ohio Un-American Activities Committee's existence. Lausche generally opposed the committee's actions, but he faced great pressure from Ohio voters who feared communism. The governor contended that the committee's actions might put into &quot;grave danger. . .the reputations of innocent people against whom accusations can be made on the basis of rumor and frequently rooted in malice,&quot; but he also stated that &quot;Communism is a menace to our country.&quot; Lausche did veto a bill that would assess jail terms and hefty monetary fines for anyone found guilty of communist leanings, but the Ohio General Assembly, at Samuel Devine's urging, passed the bill over the governor's veto. The Ohio Un-American Activities Committee continued its investigations for the next several years.</p>
-<p>Despite various attempts to rid the United States of communists, the Communist Party never ceased to exist. It continues to operate today, promoting socialist and communist ideals. The party, however, remains small and does not play a major role in national politics. </p>
+With the Cold War's outbreak during the late 1940s, many in the U.S. again feared communism's spread. A majority of people in the U.S. became convinced that the Soviet Union sought to spread its communist ideology around the world, overthrowing the United States' capitalist economy and representative democracy. During the Cold War, the United States military participated in several military conflicts, namely the Korean War and the Vietnam War, and the American government implemented several programs to prevent communism's expansion.
-==See Also==
 <div class="seeAlsoText">
 *[[Cleveland, Ohio]]
@@ Line 36: / Line 41: @@
 </div>
 [[Category:History Organizations]][[Category:The Progressive Era]]
-[[Category:Government and Politics]]
+[[Category:Government and Politics]][[Category:WIP]]

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 | caption = City hall, Columbus, Ohio
 }}
-<p>Columbus is both the capital of Ohio and the county seat of Franklin County.</p>
+Columbus is both the capital of Ohio and the county seat of Franklin County.
-<p>The city was first laid out in 1812 and incorporated in 1816. Columbus was not the original capital, but the state legislature chose to move the state government there after its location for a short time at both Chillicothe and Zanesville. Columbus was chosen as the site for the new capital because of its central location within the state and access by way of major transportation routes (primarily rivers) at that time. The legislature chose it as Ohio's capital over a number of other competitors, including Franklinton, Dublin, Worthington, and Delaware. Prior to the state legislature's decision in 1812, Columbus did not exist. The city was designed from the first as the state's capital, preparing itself for its role in Ohio's political, economic, and social life. In the years between first groundbreaking and the actual movement of the capital in 1816, Columbus grew significantly. The town was surveyed, and various city lots were put up for sale. By 1813, a penitentiary had been built, and by the following year the first church, school, and newspaper had been established. The statehouse was built in 1814 as well. Columbus grew quickly in its first few years, having a population of seven hundred people by 1815. It officially became the county seat in 1824. By 1834, the population of Columbus was four thousand people, officially elevating it to &quot;city&quot; status. In that year, Columbus residents elected John Brooks as its first mayor.</p>
-<p>Although Columbus suffered as a result of the Panic of 1819, in the following decades the capital continued to grow both economically and in terms of population. Much of Columbus's growth can be attributed to its proximity to major transportation routes. Columbus was connected to the Ohio and Erie Canal by way of an eleven-mile feeder canal in September 1831. By 1836, the National Road extended from Cumberland, Maryland, to Columbus, and within the next several years eventually extended all the way to Illinois. In the 1840s and 1850s, railroads and telegraph lines connected the capital to other parts of the state as well.</p>
+The city was first laid out in 1812 and incorporated in 1816. Columbus was not the original capital, but the state legislature chose to move the state government there after its location for a short time at both Chillicothe and Zanesville. Columbus was chosen as the site for the new capital because of its central location within the state and access to transportation routes (primarily rivers) at that time. The legislature chose it as Ohio's capital over a number of other competitors, including Franklinton, Dublin, Worthington, and Delaware. Prior to the state legislature's decision in 1812, Columbus did not exist. The city was designed from the first as the state's capital, preparing itself for its role in Ohio's political, economic, and social life. In the years between first groundbreaking and the actual movement of the capital in 1816, Columbus grew significantly. The town was surveyed, and various city lots were put up for sale. By 1813, a penitentiary had been built, and by the following year the first church, school, and newspaper had been established. The statehouse was built in 1814 as well. Columbus grew quickly in its first few years, having a population of seven hundred people by 1815. It officially became the county seat in 1824. By 1834, the population of Columbus was four thousand people, officially elevating it to "city" status. In that year, Columbus residents elected John Brooks as its first mayor.
-<p>As might be expected of a capital city, Columbus became a center of learning and social activities in the nineteenth century. A significant number of both private and public schools existed within the city. In addition, there were two colleges located in Columbus by the late nineteenth century -- The Ohio State University and Capital University. Ohio State was a state-supported school, while the Lutheran Church founded Capital University. Two medical schools also functioned at this time, Starling Medical College and the Columbus Medical College. Supplementing this emphasis on education were a number of libraries containing thousands of volumes, an Art School, and numerous musical societies and concerts. According to city records in the 1880s, Columbus boasted more than fifty churches but also had approximately six hundred saloons. The city supported numerous newspapers and magazines as well.</p>
-<p>As capital, Columbus also hosted a number of legal and medical institutions. In addition to hospitals associated with the medical colleges, Columbus reputedly had the largest insane asylum in the world, with approximately 1,300 patients. It also supported an &quot;Asylum for Feeble-Minded Youth,&quot; a &quot;Blind Asylum,&quot; and a &quot;Deaf and Dumb Asylum.&quot; The Ohio Penitentiary was also located in the capital and housed about 1,400 people by the late 1800s.</p>
+Although Columbus suffered as a result of the Panic of 1819, in the following decades the capital continued to grow both economically and in terms of population. Much of Columbus' growth can be attributed to its proximity to major transportation routes. Columbus was connected to the Ohio and Erie Canal by way of an eleven-mile feeder canal in September 1831. By 1836, the National Road extended from Cumberland, Maryland, to Columbus, and within the next several years eventually extended all the way to Illinois. In the 1840s and 1850s, railroads and telegraph lines connected the capital to other parts of the state as well.
-<p>By the mid-nineteenth century, industries began to emerge in the Columbus area, and they really began to grow in the years following the Civil War. Columbus's industrial development benefited from the nearby transportation systems as well as the city's position as the state capital. By the 1880s, there were almost two hundred factories in operation, with fifty-eight of them employing at least forty people apiece. These industries included factories manufacturing shoes, cigars, farm tools and machinery, furniture, carriages, and brooms; iron manufacturers and foundries; and brewing companies established by German migrants. The most important breweries in the city included the Schlee Brewery and the Hoster Brewery. Another major employer was the Columbus Buggy Company. Originally known as the Iron Buggy Company, by the late 1800s, this business could produce one buggy every eight minutes. It claimed to be the largest producer of buggies in the world.</p>
-<p>Despite this industrial growth, Columbus was not the state's largest city. The community's population soared during the Civil War due to Camp Chase being located in the city. Camp Chase served as a training encampment for Northern soldiers before they embarked for the South. A prison camp for captured Confederate soldiers also operated at Camp Chase. This population increase lasted for only the duration of the conflict. In the 1880 census, the city's population was 51,647.</p>
+As might be expected of a capital city, Columbus became a center of learning and social activities in the nineteenth century. A significant number of both private and public schools existed within the city. In addition, there were two colleges located in Columbus by the late nineteenth century -- The Ohio State University and Capital University. Ohio State was a state-supported school, while the Lutheran Church founded Capital University. Two medical schools also functioned at this time, Starling Medical College and the Columbus Medical College. Supplementing this emphasis on education were a number of libraries containing thousands of volumes, an Art School, and numerous musical societies and concerts. According to city records in the 1880s, Columbus boasted more than fifty churches and approximately six hundred saloons. The city supported numerous newspapers and magazines as well.
-<p>During the twentieth century, Columbus continued to grow and prosper. Due to lighted arches that spanned over the city's major north-south thoroughfare, High Street, Columbus earned the reputation of being the most &quot;brilliantly illuminated city in the country.&quot; Most of these arches disappeared by mid century, but in 2002, the city began to construct new ones to celebrate Columbus's past. The Ohio State University, which had approximately one thousand students in 1900, was the second largest institution of higher education in the United States and boasted an enrollment of 47,000 students in 2000. Numerous other colleges exist in the city, including Franklin University, Ohio Dominican College, Columbus State University, and the Columbus College of Art &amp; Design. The city's suburbs also boast several other institutions of higher education.</p>
-<p>Originally an important industrial center, Columbus has changed through the 1900s as the United States economy changed. Nationwide Insurance, Chase Bank, The Limited, and numerous other prominent businesses employ the city's residents. The city has the largest population in Ohio, numbering 711,470 people in 2000, an increase of 7.5 percent since 1990. Symbolizing Columbus's growth, in 1990, one in every thirty people earned their living in construction industries. The city also experienced tremendous territorial growth as it annexed surrounding land and communities beginning in the 1950s. In 1950, Columbus consisted of just less than forty square miles of land. In 2000, the city's borders encompassed more than two hundred square miles of land. </p>
+As capital, Columbus also hosted a number of legal and medical institutions. In addition to hospitals associated with the medical colleges, Columbus reputedly had the largest insane asylum in the world, with approximately 1,300 patients. It also supported an "Asylum for Feeble-Minded Youth," a "Blind Asylum," and a "Deaf and Dumb Asylum." The Ohio Penitentiary was also located in the capital and housed about 1,400 people by the late 1800s.
-<p>Columbus also has a booming cultural life. The Columbus Museum of Art, the Ohio Historical Society, and the Center for Ohio Science and Industry are three of the city's important museums. Columbus also has one of the nation's finest zoos. Columbus was home of the 2003 NCAA football national champions, The Ohio State Buckeyes. The Columbus Blue Jackets, a member of the National Hockey League, and the Columbus Crew, the city's professional soccer team, and the Columbus Clippers professional baseball team provide residents with additional entertainment opportunities. </p>
-<br />
+By the mid-nineteenth century, industry had begun to emerge in the Columbus area, growing quickly in the years following the Civil War. Columbus' industrial development benefited from the nearby transportation systems as well as the city's position as the state capital. By the 1880s, there were almost two hundred factories in operation, with fifty-eight of them employing at least forty people apiece. These industries included factories manufacturing shoes, cigars, farm tools and machinery, furniture, carriages, and brooms; iron manufacturers and foundries; and brewing companies established by German migrants. The most important breweries in the city included the Schlee Brewery and the Hoster Brewery. Another major employer was the Columbus Buggy Company. Originally known as the Iron Buggy Company, by the late 1800s, this business could produce one buggy every eight minutes. It claimed to be the largest producer of buggies in the world.
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 <h2>9500 B.C. to 8000 B.C. </h2>
-<p>The Clovis culture is one of the oldest widely recognized cultures of prehistoric native peoples in North America. The hallmark of the Clovis culture is the Clovis spear point. It is named for Clovis, New Mexico, where it was first recognized as a tool of Ice Age people. Archaeologists have found Clovis points from Alaska to northern Mexico and from California to Maine. They are especially common in Ohio and other eastern states. Radiocarbon dates on Clovis sites across North America indicate these people lived between 9500 to 8000 B.C.</p>
+The Clovis culture is one of the oldest widely recognized cultures of ancient natives in North America. The hallmark of the Clovis culture is the Clovis spear point. It is named for Clovis, New Mexico, where it was first recognized as a tool of Ice Age humans. Archaeologists have found Clovis points from Alaska to northern Mexico and from California to Maine. They are especially common in Ohio and other eastern states. Radiocarbon dates on Clovis sites across North America indicate they lived between 9500 and 8000 BCE.
-<p>In the southwestern United States, Clovis points have been found stuck in the ribs of mammoths. In eastern North America, they have been found with mastodon skeletons. It is likely that these hunting and gathering people ate a variety of plants and animals.</p>
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-Clark Gable was one of the great actors in the history of the motion picture in America.
+Clark Gable was a prominent actor from the United States.
 Gable was born on February 1, 1901, in Cadiz, Ohio. His mother died before Gable was one year old. He spent the next five years with his grandparents. When his father remarried in 1907, Gable moved back to his father's home. Gable graduated from high school and briefly attended Akron University in Akron, Ohio, where he studied medicine. He spent his breaks working in the rubber industry.
 Gable became disenchanted with college and moved to New York City to pursue an acting career. Gable had no real success in New York and moved to Oklahoma to work with his father in the oilfields of that state. After saving some money, the aspiring actor joined a national tour group, but the company failed financially in 1922. Gable moved to Portland, Oregon, where he worked several jobs to support himself. In 1924, after marrying his first wife, Josephine Dillon, the couple moved to Los Angeles, California, where they had some minor successes.
-In 1931, Gable had his big break. He received a screen test, and he was cast in ''The Painted Desert''. After Gable's solid performance in this feature, MGM signed him to a contract. Gable remained with MGM for the next fourteen years. During the 1930s, Gable became one of Hollywood's brightest stars. He won an Academy Award for his performance in ''It Happened One Night'' (1934). Gable's best-known role was Rhett Butler in ''Gone With The Wind'' (1939). In 1942, Gable retired from acting. He joined the United States Army during World War II and won the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Air Medal. At the end of the war, Gable returned to acting.
+In 1931, Gable had his big break. He received a screen test, and he was cast in The Painted Desert. After Gable's solid performance in this feature, MGM signed him to a contract. Gable remained with MGM for the next fourteen years. During the 1930s, Gable became one of Hollywood's brightest stars. He won an Academy Award for his performance in It Happened One Night (1934). Gable's best-known role was Rhett Butler in Gone With The Wind (1939). In 1942, Gable retired from acting. He joined the United States Army during World War II and won the Distinguished Flying Cross and the Air Medal. At the end of the war, Gable returned to acting.
 Clark Gable died of a heart attack on November 16, 1960. During his career, Gable had starred in sixty-five films.
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 | caption = Violet Life Savers Ad from 1921
 }}
-<p>Clarence A. Crane spent his youth in Garrettsville, Ohio. His father produced maple sugar. After a courtship of only two months, Clarence Crane married Grace Edna Hart on June 1, 1898. The following summer, the couple's only child was born, poet Harold Hart Crane. The Cranes' marriage was a difficult one. Grace Crane suffered from mental illness, and the couple separated on several occasions. The marriage finally ended in divorce on April 7, 1917.</p>
+Clarence A. Crane (1875-1931) spent his youth in Garrettsville, Ohio. His father produced maple sugar. After a courtship of only two months, Clarence Crane married Grace Edna Hart on June 1, 1898. The following summer, the couple's only child was born, poet Harold Hart Crane. The Cranes' marriage was a difficult one. Grace Crane suffered from mental illness, and the couple separated on several occasions. The marriage finally ended in divorce on April 7, 1917.
-<p>Despite his troubled personal life, Crane prospered as a businessman. He worked for his father until 1903, when he formed his own maple sugar business in Warren, Ohio. Crane's company quickly emerged as the largest producer of maple sugar in the world. In 1909, Crane sold the business, but he continued to work for the firm as a salesman in Cleveland, Ohio, for the next two years. In 1911, Crane began to produce chocolate candy in Cleveland. His company was known as the Queen Victoria Chocolate Company.</p>
-<p>In 1912, Crane created a new type of candy. He realized that many people refused to buy chocolate during the summer months, because chocolate melted easily in the heat. To produce the new candy, the chocolate maker used a machine that pharmacists utilized to manufacture round flat pills. He then punched a hole in the middle of the candy, making it resemble a life preserver. Crane called his new candy Life Savers. </p>
+Despite his troubled personal life, Crane prospered as a businessman. He worked for his father until 1903, when he formed his own maple sugar business in Warren, Ohio. Crane's company quickly emerged as the largest producer of maple sugar in the world. In 1909, Crane sold the business, but he continued to work for the firm as a salesman in Cleveland, Ohio, for the next two years. In 1911, Crane began to produce chocolate candy in Cleveland. His company was known as the Queen Victoria Chocolate Company.
-<p>Initially, Life Savers only came in peppermint flavor. Crane marketed the candy, known as Pep-O-Mint Life Savers, as a breath mint, claiming on the packaging that it was &quot;For That Stormy Breath.&quot; Originally, Crane packaged the candy in cardboard tubes. The wrapper had a picture of a sailor tossing a young woman a life preserver. </p>
-<p>In 1913, Crane sold the rights to Life Savers to two New York candy manufacturers. These new producers wrapped Life Savers in foil tubes to better preserve the candy. They also marketed the candy to saloon owners, hoping that customers would use Life Savers to improve their breath after drinking and smoking in the bars. Once saloon owners began selling the candy, Life Savers soared in popularity. Today, Kraft Foods, Inc., manufactures the candy. Due to the cheaper cost of sugar in Canada, in 2003, Kraft Foods began to manufacture Life Savers exclusively in Canada.</p>
+In 1912, Crane created a new type of candy. He realized that many people refused to buy chocolate during the summer months, because chocolate melted easily in the heat. To produce the new candy, the chocolate maker used a machine that pharmacists utilized to manufacture round flat pills. He then punched a hole in the middle of the candy, making it resemble a life preserver. Crane called his new candy Life Savers.
-<p>Crane remained involved in the candy business for the remainder of his life, although he no longer manufactured Life Savers after 1913. He formed the Crane Chocolate Company in 1916. While the company was headquartered in Cleveland, by 1921, the firm had sales offices in New York City, New York, and Kansas City, Missouri. Crane died on July 6, 1931.</p>
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 | caption = Civilian Conservation Corps workers at Fort Ancient, 1934. Fort Ancient, built 2,000 years ago by prehistoric Native Americans, is an earthworks with 18,000 feet of earthen walls enclosing 100 acres. It is located in Warren County, Ohio and maintained as a state memorial by the Ohio Historical Society.
 }}
-<p>On March 31, 1933, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). The CCC was part of Roosevelt's New Deal. Roosevelt hoped that his New Deal would allow Americans to cope with the Great Depression, would help end the current economic downturn, and would help prevent another depression from occurring in the future.</p>
+On March 31, 1933, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). The CCC was part of Roosevelt's New Deal. Roosevelt hoped that his New Deal would allow people in the United States to cope with the Great Depression, would help end the current economic downturn, and would help prevent another depression from occurring in the future.
-<p>The Civilian Conservation Corps hired unemployed American men between eighteen and twenty-five years of age to work on various government projects. These projects focused upon road construction, flood control, reforestation, and soil erosion prevention. CCC workers also improved or constructed local, state, and national parks. Government officials organized the CCC like a military unit, with workers living in camps, wearing uniforms, and serving in individual under the command of officers. CCC workers received thirty dollars per month in pay, but the government sent twenty-five dollars of that monthly income to the worker's family. The CCC covered the basic living expenses -- food, clothing, and housing -- for each worker. Government officials sent the bulk of a worker's income home to his family to help his relatives cope with the Great Depression.</p>
-<p>The Civilian Conservation Corps eventually provided employment to nearly three million men by the program's end. Men of all races participated in the CCC, but workers were segregated into units based upon their race. At its peak, the CCC employed 500,000 men at one time. Ohio men also found work with the CCC, with approximately fourteen thousand Ohioans employed with the CCC every year that the program existed. Thanks to the CCC's employment opportunities, many Ohioans were able to cope with the Great Depression. The CCC also benefited Ohioans in other ways, including providing them with improved parks and flood and soil erosion control projects. Perhaps the CCC's most important contribution to Ohio, beyond employing some of the state's residents, was the continued development of the Muskingum Conservancy District. The Civilian Conservation Corps remained in effect until 1942. By this point in time, the Great Depression had ended, and unemployment had dropped tremendously due to the creation of thousands of jobs associated with World War II.</p>
+The Civilian Conservation Corps hired unemployed men in the U.S. between eighteen and twenty-five years of age to work on various government projects. These projects focused upon road construction, flood control, reforestation, and soil erosion prevention. CCC workers also improved or constructed local, state, and national parks. Government officials organized the CCC like a military unit, with workers living in camps, wearing uniforms, and serving in individual under the command of officers. CCC workers received thirty dollars per month in pay, but the government sent twenty-five dollars of that monthly income to the worker's family. The CCC covered the basic living expenses—food, clothing, and housing—for each worker. Government officials sent the bulk of a worker's income home to his family to help his relatives cope with the Great Depression.
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-<p>Since the end of the American Civil War, African Americans have struggled to achieve equality. In 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution ended slavery in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment granted equal protection under the law to African Americans in 1867, and in 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment gave African-American men the right to vote. Despite having received equal rights according to the United States Constitution, many white people continued to discriminate against African Americans across the United States.</p>
+Since the end of the American Civil War, African Americans have struggled to achieve equality. In 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution ended slavery in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment granted equal protection under the law to African Americans in 1867, and in 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment gave African American men the right to vote. Despite having received equal rights according to the United States Constitution, many white people continued to discriminate against African Americans across the United States.
-<p>Following World War II, many African Americans and whites united together to protest the racism and discrimination that existed in the United States. For many years before World War II, a smaller number of blacks and whites had fought for equality. However, with the end of World War II a more organized Civil Rights Movement came into being. </p>
-<p>There were several reasons why this movement developed at this point in American history. Hundreds of thousands of African Americans served their country during World War II. They discovered that racial discrimination was not nearly as oppressive in European countries like Great Britain and France. For the first time, many people realized that the United States could become a land without racial discrimination. Another primary reason for the growth of the Civil Rights Movement at the end of World War II was the G.I. Bill. To help veterans from World War II readjust to life after returning home, the federal government helped offset the cost of a college education. Thousands of African-American veterans took advantage of this benefit and then discovered after graduating from college that whites received better-paying jobs. Many African Americans took jobs that they could have obtained without a four-year college degree. Unhappy that the United States did not truly provide freedom and equality to all people, many African Americans and their white supporters created a much more organized movement to achieve equal rights.</p>
+Following World War II, many African Americans and whites united together to protest the racism and discrimination that existed in the United States. For many years before World War II, a smaller number of African Americans and whites had fought for equality. However, with the end of World War II a more organized Civil Rights Movement came into being.
-<p>During the 1950s and the early 1960s, Martin Luther King, Jr., emerged as an important leader of the Civil Rights Movement. In 1955, he helped organize the Montgomery Bus Boycott and hoped to end segregated public transportation in Montgomery, Alabama. King next formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. This organization, established in 1957, sought to unite churches across the South to protest racial segregation and the lack of other rights for African Americans. King was a leader in this organization for the rest of his life. He advocated non-violent protest. King believed that people of all races would look favorably on a movement that encouraged peace and equality and did not meet injustice with violence. King's peaceful message attracted thousands of supporters of all races who agreed that segregation and the lack of rights for African Americans could not continue.</p>
-<p>King organized protest rallies, boycotts, sit-ins, and marches. He hoped that thousands of people asking peacefully and respectfully for equal rights would rally support to the Civil Rights Movement. The best-known event organized by King was the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which occurred on August 28, 1963, in Washington, DC. It was at this protest that King delivered his &quot;I have a Dream&quot; Speech. Between 200,000 and 500,000 people of all races marched through the streets of Washington. They peacefully requested government support to end segregation and other forms of racial injustice. Due to the success of this march, many people responded with violence to try to prevent the continued growth and success of the Civil Rights Movement.</p>
+There were several reasons why this movement developed at this point in U.S. history. Hundreds of thousands of African Americans served their country during World War II. They discovered that racial discrimination was not nearly as oppressive in European countries like Great Britain and France. For the first time, many people realized that the United States could become a land without racial discrimination. Another primary reason for the growth of the Civil Rights Movement at the end of World War II was the G.I. Bill. To help veterans from World War II readjust to life after returning home, the federal government helped offset the cost of a college education. Thousands of African American veterans took advantage of this benefit and then discovered after graduating from college that whites received better-paying jobs. Many African Americans took jobs that they could have obtained without a four-year college degree. Unhappy that the United States did not truly provide freedom and equality to all people, many African Americans and their supporters created a much more organized movement to achieve equal rights.
-<p>The Civil Rights Movement was successful in 1964 and 1965, with the federal government's passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. These two federal laws outlawed segregation, guaranteed African Americans equal protection under the law, and truly secured black men and women the right to vote. However, the Civil Rights Movement was not over. King and other activists continued to urge peaceful demonstrations to protest the lack of equal pay for equal work for African Americans. They also sought to improve educational opportunities for people of all races. </p>
-<p>The Civil Rights Movement began to change after 1965. Some African Americans began to reject the calls for non-violent protests. These people wanted changes to occur much more quickly. They demanded action now, rather than the slower changes that usually came from peaceful demonstrations. By 1965, the Civil Rights Movement had divided between the more peaceful followers of King and generally younger and more assertive African Americans.</p>
+During the 1950s and the early 1960s, Martin Luther King, Jr., emerged as an important leader of the Civil Rights Movement. In 1955, he helped organize the Montgomery Bus Boycott and hoped to end segregated public transportation in Montgomery, Alabama. King next formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. This organization, established in 1957, sought to unite churches across the South to protest racial segregation and the lack of other rights for African Americans. King was a leader in this organization for the rest of his life. He advocated non-violent protest. King believed that people of all races would look favorably on a movement that encouraged peace and equality and did not meet injustice with violence. King's peaceful message attracted thousands of supporters of all races who agreed that segregation and the lack of rights for African Americans could not continue.
-<p>Despite this split within the Civil Rights Movement, activists of all races continued to fight for the rights of African Americans. On April 4, 1968, an assassin killed Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. in Memphis, Tennessee. The Civil Rights Movement split further and lacked the strong influence that it had enjoyed during the late 1950s and the early 1960s.</p>
-<p>Many people view the Civil Rights Movement as the struggle to provide African Americans in the Southern United States with equal opportunities, but this reform era encompassed much more. During the 1950s and 1960s, African Americans living in the northern part of the United States also experienced racism and discrimination. Generally, the problems that these people endured were not as oppressive as African Americans faced in the South. Many white and black Ohioans actively worked to bring change to the South They joined organizations such as the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and the Congress of Racial Equality. They participated in protests across the South including the Freedom Summer Project of 1964. </p>
+King organized protest rallies, boycotts, sit-ins, and marches. He hoped that thousands of people asking peacefully and respectfully for equal rights would rally support to the Civil Rights Movement. The best-known event organized by King was the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, which occurred on August 28, 1963, in Washington, DC. It was at this protest that King delivered his "I have a Dream" Speech. Between 200,000 and 500,000 people of all races marched through the streets of Washington. They peacefully requested government support to end segregation and other forms of racial injustice. Due to the success of this march, many people responded with violence to try to prevent the continued growth and success of the Civil Rights Movement.
-<p>Other Northern activists sought to end inequality in Ohio. For example, during the 1960s and 1970s, the United Freedom Movement sought to desegregate schools in Cleveland, Ohio. Partly due to pressure from Civil Rights activists, the State of Ohio enacted the Ohio Civil Rights Act of 1959 to &quot;prevent and eliminate the practice of discrimination in employment against persons because of their race, color, religion, national origin, or ancestry.&quot; The Civil Rights Act also guaranteed all people fair access to public facilities and private businesses. The Ohio Civil Rights Act established the Ohio Civil Rights Commission to help eliminate discrimination in Ohio.</p>
-<br />
+The Civil Rights Movement was successful in 1964 and 1965, with the federal government's passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. These two federal laws outlawed segregation, guaranteed African Americans equal protection under the law, and truly secured African American men and women the right to vote. However, the Civil Rights Movement was not over. King and other activists continued to urge peaceful demonstrations to protest the lack of equal pay for equal work for African Americans. They also sought to improve educational opportunities for people of all races.
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+[[Category:World Wars]][[Category:WIP]]

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 | caption = Cincinnati, Ohio
 }}
-<p>From modest beginnings, Cincinnati soon became the &quot;Queen City of the West&quot;.</p>
+From modest beginnings, Cincinnati soon became the "Queen City of the West.”
-<p>In 1788, Israel Ludlow, Matthias Denman, and Robert Patterson purchased eight hundred acres from John Cleves Symmes along the Ohio River at the Licking River's mouth. Symmes had purchased two million acres of land from the Confederation Congress in 1787 and now hoped to become rich by selling parts of the Symmes Purchase to others. Denman provided the necessary cash; Patterson found settlers; and Ludlow surveyed the land to make sales and also establish a town. By early January 1789, Ludlow had platted the town, dividing it into two types of lots. Near the town's center, lots were one-half acre. Outlying lots were four acres. Ludlow, Denman, and Patterson provided the first thirty settlers with two free lots, one of each type. The three men named the town Losantiville. The name was a convoluted contraction of the idea that this was a &quot;city across from the mouth of the Licking River.&quot;</p>
-<p>The town grew slowly. One month after the settlement was established, only three log cabins existed in Losantiville. On the outlying lots, settlers had constructed twenty cabins and one frame house. Eleven families and two dozen single men lived on the land. In August 1789, the village began to grow quickly. In that month, Josiah Harmar authorized the construction of Fort Washington to protect settlers in both the Symmes Purchase and the Miami Purchase, as well as in northern Kentucky. The fort was located just west of Denman's, Ludlow's, and Patterson's eight hundred acres of land. When completed in December 1789, Harmar made Fort Washington his headquarters. Usually three hundred soldiers lived in the fort, increasing Losantiville's population to nearly five hundred people. In 1790, the governor of the Northwest Territory, Arthur St. Clair, proceeded to establish Hamilton County and made Losantiville the county seat. St. Clair disliked the name Losantiville and changed the town's name to Cincinnati. The town's name is recognition of the Roman citizen soldier Cincinnatus. It is also an acknowledgment of the Society of Cincinnati. General St. Clair was a member of this association of former officers of the Revolutionary War. An additional 250 families arrived later that year, swelling the town's population to nearly seven hundred people.</p>
+In 1788, Israel Ludlow, Matthias Denman, and Robert Patterson purchased eight hundred acres from John Cleves Symmes along the Ohio River at the Licking River's mouth. Symmes had purchased two million acres of land from the Confederation Congress in 1787 and now hoped to become rich by selling parts of the Symmes Purchase to others. Denman provided the necessary funds; Patterson found settlers; and Ludlow surveyed the land to make sales and also establish a town. By early January 1789, Ludlow had platted the town, dividing it into two types of lots. Near the town's center, lots were one-half acre. Outlying lots were four acres. Ludlow, Denman, and Patterson provided the first thirty settlers with two free lots, one of each type. The three men named the town Losantiville. The name was a convoluted contraction of the idea that this was a "city across from the mouth of the Licking River."
-<p>Law and order remained absent from Cincinnati during its early years. The settlers organized a court and hired a sheriff, but the soldiers routinely had to establish martial law in the community. This became especially common as tensions increased with local Native Americans, especially the Shawnee Indians. Contributing to the lawlessness, many residents grew corn, which they distilled into alcohol and sold to the soldiers. During 1790 and 1791, thousands of militiamen from Kentucky and Pennsylvania flooded Cincinnati as Harmar and eventually St. Clair planned expeditions against the Native Americans. St. Clair faced such a difficult time maintaining control of his men in the town, with its three taverns, that he moved his men to nearby Ludlow's Station. After St. Clair's Defeat, at the hands of the Indians in 1791, many settlers fled Cincinnati, fearing that the natives would descend upon them. Despite the lack of order and the various safety concerns, hundreds of settlers continued to come to the town. They believed that they could make their fortunes providing the soldiers and people traveling down the Ohio River with supplies. By the summer of 1792, thirty warehouses existed in Cincinnati to meet these needs. With the success of Anthony Wayne against the Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794, more settlers arrived in the community, including a French pastry chef and a hairdresser. By early 1795, a spinning wheel manufacturer, a brewer, a chair manufacturer, and a butcher all had opened up businesses. In 1803, the year that the United States Army abandoned Fort Washington, the city had roughly one thousand civilian residents. It continued to grow, reaching nearly ten thousand people by 1820. Cincinnati had emerged as a major city, primarily due to its strategic location on the Ohio River.</p>
-<p>During the nineteenth century, Cincinnati continued to grow. The Ohio River provided Cincinnati residents with numerous business opportunities. Hotels, restaurants, and taverns quickly opened to meet the needs of settlers traveling westward on the Ohio River. Steamboats were manufactured and repaired in the city. Farmers brought their crops to the city to send down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to New Orleans, Louisiana, one of Ohio's major markets. The Miami and Erie Canal made the trip from western Ohio to Cincinnati much easier and less expensive for local farmers. In the early 1800s, Cincinnati developed into an important meatpacking center. Farmers brought their livestock to the city, where it was slaughtered, processed, and sold to western settlers or shipped to various markets. Beginning in the 1830s, ethnic Germans began to settle in Cincinnati. During this time period, Cincinnati was becoming the pork-processing center of the United States. Because of Cincinnati's association with meatpacking, the city became known as the &quot;Porkopolis&quot; of the United States.</p>
+The town grew slowly. One month after the settlement was established only three log cabins existed in Losantiville. On the outlying lots, settlers had constructed twenty cabins and one frame house. Eleven families and two dozen single men lived on the land. In August 1789, the village began to grow quickly. In that month, Josiah Harmar authorized the construction of Fort Washington to protect settlers in both the Symmes Purchase and the Miami Purchase, as well as in northern Kentucky. The fort was located just west of Denman's, Ludlow's, and Patterson's eight hundred acres of land. When completed in December 1789, Harmar made Fort Washington his headquarters. Usually three hundred soldiers were stationed at the fort, increasing Losantiville's population to nearly five hundred people. In 1790, the governor of the Northwest Territory, Arthur St. Clair, proceeded to establish Hamilton County and made Losantiville the county seat. St. Clair disliked the name Losantiville and changed the town's name to Cincinnati. The town's name is recognition of the Roman citizen soldier Cincinnatus. It is also an acknowledgment of the Society of Cincinnati. General St. Clair was a member of this association of former officers of the Revolutionary War. An additional 250 families arrived later that year, swelling the town's population to nearly seven hundred people.
-<p>Cincinnati also played an important role in the intellectual and cultural development of Ohio during the first half of the nineteenth century. In 1819, Daniel Drake established the Medical College of Ohio, hoping to improve medical care on the frontier. Numerous literary figures, including Harriet Beecher Stowe � The author of &quot;Uncle tom's Cabin,&quot; called Cincinnati home for at least part of their lives. German and Irish immigrants mixed with Americans from both North and South to create a very diverse and worldly population.</p>
-<p>Some residents opposed the activities of other people in the city and actively campaigned to reform the community. The temperance movement targeted the Germans and the Irish, who were alleged to be well-known for their supposedly heavy drinking. Ohio abolitionists utilized Cincinnati to campaign against slavery. Located directly across the Ohio River from Kentucky, a slaveholding state, Cincinnati abolitionists published newspapers and anti-slavery tracts, hoping to convince their slaveholding neighbors to free their slaves. Participants in the Underground Railroad also smuggled runaway slaves across the Ohio River to potential freedom in the North. Not all white Ohioans supported the abolitionists. Many of these people feared that, if slavery ended, they would face competition from the freed African Americans. Race riots sometimes occurred, especially if whites feared that African Americans were gaining too much power or were infringing upon white opportunities. In 1829, one such riot occurred in Cincinnati, because Irish immigrants disliked competition from the African-American community. During the Civil War, most residents supported the United States, but a sizable number of people went south to fight for the Confederacy. Cincinnati served as a major recruiting and organization center for the United States military during the Civil War. The city's businesses thrived, as they provided supplies to the soldiers and housing for both the soldiers and their families. Various charity organizations also were present in the city to help soldiers and their families, including the United States Sanitary Commission and the United States Christian Commission.</p>
+Law and order remained absent from Cincinnati during its early years. The settlers organized a court and hired a sheriff, but the soldiers routinely had to establish martial law in the community. This became especially common as tensions increased with local Native Americans, especially the Shawnee tribe. Contributing to the lawlessness, many residents grew corn, which they distilled into alcohol and sold to the soldiers. During 1790 and 1791, thousands of militiamen from Kentucky and Pennsylvania flooded Cincinnati as Harmar and eventually St. Clair planned expeditions against the Native Americans. St. Clair faced such a difficult time maintaining control of his men in the town, with its three taverns, that he moved his men to nearby Ludlow's Station. After St. Clair's Defeat at the hands of the Indians in 1791 many settlers fled Cincinnati, fearing that the natives would descend upon them. Despite the lack of order and the various safety concerns, hundreds of settlers continued to come to the town. They believed that they could make their fortunes by providing the soldiers and people traveling down the Ohio River with supplies. By the summer of 1792, thirty warehouses existed in Cincinnati to meet these needs. With the success of Anthony Wayne against the Native Americans at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794, more settlers arrived in the community, including a French pastry chef and a hairdresser. By early 1795, a spinning wheel manufacturer, a brewer, a chair manufacturer, and a butcher all had opened up businesses. In 1803, the year that the United States Army abandoned Fort Washington, the city had roughly one thousand civilian residents. It continued to grow, reaching nearly ten thousand people by 1820. Cincinnati had emerged as a major city, primarily due to its strategic location on the Ohio River.
-<p>By the late 1880s, Cincinnati was the largest city in Ohio, with almost 300,000 people. Cincinnati had the densest population of any city in the United States, with an average of 37,143 people per square mile. More than fifteen railroads connected Cincinnati to other parts of the United States. The major industry in Cincinnati was iron production, followed closely by meatpacking, cloth production, and woodworking. Cincinnati's industries employed 103,325 people in 1887, and produced more than 200 million dollars in goods. Roughly 130 newspapers and magazines met the literary needs of the people. The public library consisted of more than eighty thousand books. An art museum and art academy existed in Cincinnati, as well as an opera house and the Music Hall and Exposition Building. The University of Cincinnati provided residents with access to a college education. The city contained more than two hundred churches. It also had five hospitals. Cincinnati played a major role in Ohio government as well. By the end of the 1880s, the city had provided Ohio with thirteen governors, including Othniel Looker, Ethan Allen Brown, Salmon Chase, William Dennison, John Brough, Charles Anderson, Jacob Cox, Rutherford Hayes, Edward Noyes, Richard Bishop, George Hoadley, Thomas Young, and Joseph Foraker. By 1890, Cincinnati had become an important industrial, political, literary, and educational center in both Ohio and the United States.</p>
-<p>During the twentieth century, Cincinnati has experienced continued growth both culturally and economically. The city's population has remained relatively constant since the 1880s with its population in 2000 at 365,000 people. The city encompasses just seventy-seven square miles of land. That does not mean that the region has not experienced a population explosion since the late 1800s. While only 365,000 people reside within the city's borders, more than 1.8 million people live in surrounding communities, providing businesses with a readily available supply of workers.</p>
+During the nineteenth century, Cincinnati continued to grow. The Ohio River provided Cincinnati residents with numerous business opportunities. Hotels, restaurants, and taverns quickly opened to meet the needs of settlers traveling westward on the Ohio River. Steamboats were manufactured and repaired in the city. Farmers brought their crops to the city to send down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to New Orleans, Louisiana, one of Ohio's major markets. The Miami and Erie Canal made the trip from western Ohio to Cincinnati much easier and less expensive for local farmers. In the early 1800s, Cincinnati developed into an important meatpacking center. Farmers brought their livestock to the city, where it was slaughtered, processed, and sold to western settlers or shipped to various markets. Beginning in the 1830s, ethnic Germans began to settle in Cincinnati. During this time period, Cincinnati was becoming the pork-processing center of the United States. Because of Cincinnati's association with meatpacking, the city became known as the "Porkopolis" of the United States.
-<p>Many major corporations operate in the city, including Procter &amp; Gamble, Kroger, Federated Department Stores, Ashland, Inc, CINergy, and American Financial Group. Several of these businesses and many others have their national or regional headquarters located in Cincinnati, including Chiquita, Star-Kist, Kroger, Federated Department Stores, Scripps-Howard, Totes, and Kenner. Residents enjoy diverse employment opportunities. This diversity has helped Cincinnati residents to weather economic downturns comparatively easily, as no single business employs more than three percent of the city's workforce. When hard times have hit the community, local residents have persevered. During the Great Depression, many people found employment through various government programs, including the Works Progress Administration and the Public Works Administration. It was also during the Great Depression when the Carew Tower, Cincinnati's tallest building, was built.</p>
-<p>These economic opportunities were one of the major reasons why Places Rated Almanac ranked Cincinnati as America's Most Livable City in 1993. The city's low crime rate, sixth lowest among major United States cities in 1993, also contributed to this prestigious ranking. However, concerns about racism in the city's police department led to a boycott by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored Persons in the early 2000s. Despite this, Cincinnati remains the cultural center of southwestern Ohio, northern Kentucky, and southern Indiana. The city boasts two major professional sports franchises, the Cincinnati Reds and the Cincinnati Bengals. Numerous theaters operate in the city, including the Aronoff Center for the Arts -- home of the Cincinnati Ballet and the Cincinnati Opera, the Emery Theater, the Taft Theater, the Showboat Majestic, the Playhouse in the Park, the University of Cincinnati College Conservatory of Music, and Music Hall. More than one hundred art galleries exist in the city and the surrounding area. The most prominent ones are the Cincinnati Art Museum, the Contemporary Arts Center, and the Taft Museum. The Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden is known for its successful breeding programs.</p>
+Cincinnati also played an important role in the intellectual and cultural development of Ohio during the first half of the nineteenth century. In 1819, Daniel Drake established the Medical College of Ohio, hoping to improve medical care on the frontier. Numerous literary figures, including Harriet Beecher Stowe, the author of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," called Cincinnati home for at least part of their lives. German and Irish immigrants mixed with Americans from both North and South to create a very diverse and worldly population.
-<p>Despite this cultural and economic growth, not all residents are able to enjoy the benefits of living within Cincinnati's borders. Within the city's boundaries reside people of all socio-economic backgrounds. Some residents enjoy life in upscale communities, but many residents live in lower-income areas, including Over-the-Rhine and the Laurel Homes, the largest public housing project in the United States. Many downtown businesses moved to the suburbs beginning in the 1950s, and wealthier residents went with them. Residents who could not afford to move with the companies experienced a shortage of jobs. This made it difficult for some people to experience the city's numerous benefits. In recent years, Cincinnati officials have made dramatic efforts to revitalize the downtown area, providing local residents with additional opportunities.</p>
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-Charles Franklin Kettering was born on a farm near Loudonville, Ohio, on August 29, 1876. He came from a poor background but still managed to obtain an education. Kettering graduated from The Ohio State University in 1904 with a degree in engineering. After obtaining his diploma, Kettering moved to Dayton, where he obtained a job at the National Cash Register Company. There, he helped to develop the first electric cash register.
+Charles Franklin Kettering was born on a farm near Loudonville, Ohio, on August 29, 1876. He came from a modest background but still managed to obtain a college education, graduating from The Ohio State University in 1904 with a degree in engineering. After obtaining his diploma, Kettering moved to Dayton, where he obtained a job at the National Cash Register Company. There, he helped to develop the first electric cash register.
-Soon, Kettering decided to leave National Cash Register. In 1909, Kettering and Edward Deeds founded the Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company, known as Delco. Kettering was involved in a number of research projects at Delco, inventing a portable electric generator and some important automobile innovations. Kettering is credited with inventing the first electric ignition system for automobiles. This development allowed drivers to start the automobile engine without having to crank it. In addition, Kettering invented electric lights for automobiles that would allow drivers to use them at night. Kettering's successes led General Motors to purchase Delco in 1916. Kettering was hired as the head of General Motors's new research division and became a vice president in the company in 1920. Kettering continued to develop new technology for automobiles throughout his life, including spark plugs, leaded gasoline, the automatic transmission, and four-wheel brakes. Under his leadership, General Motors also developed diesel engines, safety glass, and the refrigerant Freon. Kettering's home was the first house in the United States to have air conditioning, through the use of Freon. Kettering retired from General Motors in 1947.
+Kettering soon decided to leave National Cash Register and. In 1909, founded the Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company, known as Delco, with his associate Edward Deeds. Kettering was involved in a number of research projects at Delco, inventing a portable electric generator and many important automobile innovations. Kettering is credited with inventing the first electric ignition system for automobiles. This development allowed drivers to start their automobile’s engine without having to crank it. In addition, Kettering invented electric lights for automobiles that would allow drivers to drive safely at night. Kettering's successes led General Motors to purchase Delco in 1916. Kettering was hired as the head of General Motors’ new research division and became a vice president of the company in 1920. Kettering continued to develop new technology for automobiles throughout his life, including spark plugs, leaded gasoline, automatic transmission, and four-wheel brakes. Under his leadership, General Motors also developed diesel engines, safety glass, and the refrigerant Freon. Kettering's home was the first house in the United States to have electric air conditioning, through the use of Freon. Kettering retired from General Motors in 1947.
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 Calvin Coolidge was born on July 4, 1872, in Plymouth Notch, Vermont. In 1895, he graduated from Amherst College and proceeded to enter the legal profession in Northampton, Massachusetts. Coolidge quickly pursued a political career as well, becoming a city councilman in Northampton. Over the next twenty years, the politician won election to numerous offices, including Northampton solicitor, clerk of courts, representative in the Massachusetts legislature, and mayor of Northampton.
-In 1918, Coolidge, running as the Republican Party's candidate, secured election as Massachusetts's governor. As governor, Harding proved to be effective as a leader. He effectively ended a strike by Boston police officers by calling out the Massachusetts National Guard. He received applause from across the nation for his handling of this situation and, as a result, received the Republican Party's nomination for Vice President of the United States in 1920. The Republican presidential candidate was Ohioan Warren Gamaliel Harding.
+In 1918, Coolidge, running as the Republican Party's candidate, secured election as Massachusetts's governor. As governor, Coolidge proved to be effective as a leader. He effectively ended a strike by Boston police officers by calling out the Massachusetts National Guard. He received applause from across the nation for his handling of this situation and, as a result, received the Republican Party's nomination for Vice President of the United States in 1920. The Republican presidential candidate was Ohioan Warren Gamaliel Harding.
 Harding and Coolidge won the presidential election of 1920 by approximately seven million votes. Scandals beset the Harding Administration, weakening the Republicans' grasp on the United States Congress, where they held a majority of seats in both houses. Coolidge tried to distance himself from Harding, hoping not to destroy his political career. He chose to speak as few words as possible and earned the nickname "Silent Cal."
-In 1923, Harding unexpectedly died. Coolidge, thus, became president. He immediately set out to restore Americans' faith in the Republican Party by ending the scandals that beset Harding. His silence during the Harding Administration actually assisted him in doing so. Many Americans concluded that Coolidge was above reproach.
+In 1923, Harding unexpectedly died. Coolidge, thus, became president. He immediately set out to restore faith in the Republican Party by ending the scandals that beset Harding. His silence during the Harding Administration actually assisted him in doing so. Many in the United States concluded that Coolidge was above reproach.
-As president, Coolidge enjoyed an apparently booming economy. The Roaring Twenties erupted, and Americans, including Ohioans, seemed to be earning more money and having more luxurious products available to them than ever before. Because of this economic growth, Coolidge easily won the presidential election of 1924, winning by an even more substantial margin than Harding had done four years earlier.
+As president, Coolidge enjoyed an apparently booming economy. The Roaring Twenties erupted, and residents of the U.S., including Ohioans, seemed to be earning more money and having more luxurious products available to them than ever before. Because of this economic growth, Coolidge easily won the presidential election of 1924, winning by an even more substantial margin than Harding had done four years earlier.
-Unfortunately for the American people, Coolidge's policies helped contribute to the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression. Coolidge preferred a laissez faire approach for the federal government. While many groups prospered in the 1920s, others suffered, especially farmers. Coolidge refused to provide government assistance for farmers, causing a division within the Republican Party during his second term in office. Coolidge also failed to create banking restrictions. Due to bad investments on the part of banks, numerous Americans lost their life savings during the late 1920s and the 1930s, contributing to a weakened economy and the Great Depression.
+Unfortunately for the U.S., Coolidge's policies helped contribute to the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression. Coolidge preferred a laissez-faire approach for the federal government. While many groups prospered in the 1920s, others suffered, especially farmers. Coolidge refused to provide government assistance for farmers, causing a division within the Republican Party during his second term in office. Coolidge also failed to create banking restrictions. Due to bad investments on the part of banks, numerous people in the U.S. lost their life savings during the late 1920s and the 1930s, contributing to a weakened economy and the Great Depression.
 [[Category:History People]]
 [[Category:The Progressive Era]][[Category:Business and Industry]]

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 Addison White, an escaped slave, set the chain of events in motion that culminated in the Battle of Lumbarton. In 1856, White ran away from Kentucky to Ohio along the Underground Railroad. He eventually made his way to Mechanicsburg, Ohio, in Champaign County. Here, he sought refuge in the home of Udney Hyde. White remained in the Hyde home for eight months, purportedly helping Hyde recover from a broken ankle. White's owner and some federal marshals eventually located the fugitive slave at Hyde's home. The marshals attempted to capture White, who had barricaded himself in the loft of a log cabin with a gun. White was able to drive the marshals away, but they soon returned. Mechanicsburg townspeople had also arrived on the scene and surrounded the barn. Armed with pitchforks and other weapons, they refused to let the marshals take the fugitive slave, who, the mob falsely said, had fled to Canada. The marshals did arrest several people for aiding White in his escape.
-The marshals took their prisoners, including Udney Hyde's son, Russell Hyde, towards Urbana, Ohio. The sheriff of Clark County attempted to arrest the federal marshals for illegally detaining the men. The marshals refused to release the captives and proceeded to beat the sheriff and the posse severely. Eventually, a mob of Ohioans detained the marshals and jailed them in Springfield, Ohio on the charge of assault with intent to kill, due to the altercation with the Clark County sheriff. The first skirmish between the marshals and the sheriff's posse and the second one with the mob of Ohioans became known as the Battle of Lumbarton.
+The marshals took their prisoners, including Udney Hyde's son, Russell Hyde, towards Urbana, Ohio. The sheriff of Clark County attempted to arrest the federal marshals for illegally detaining the men. The marshals refused to release the captives and proceeded to beat the sheriff and the posse severely. Eventually, a mob of Ohioans detained the marshals and jailed them in Springfield, Ohio due to the altercation with the Clark County sheriff. The first skirmish between the marshals and the sheriff's posse and the second one with the mob of Ohioans became known as the Battle of Lumbarton.
-Eventually, Ohio Governor Salmon P. Chase negotiated the release of the federal prisoners as well as of the marshals, with all charges being dropped against both groups. Mechanicsburg residents raised 950 dollars and purchased Addison White's freedom from his owner. Daniel White agreed to the sale.
+Eventually, Ohio Governor Salmon P. Chase negotiated the release of the federal prisoners as well as of the marshals, and all charges were nullified. Mechanicsburg residents raised 950 dollars and purchased Addison White's freedom from his owner. Daniel White agreed to the sale.
 The Battle of Lumbarton illustrates the increasing tensions between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces during the mid-nineteenth century. These tensions eventually contributed to the American Civil War's outbreak in 1861.

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 | caption = Ahyouwaighs, Chief of the Six Nations, from History of the Indian Tribes of North America, with Biographical Sketches and Anecdotes of the Principal Chiefs, by Thomas L. McKenney and James Hall published in 1854. The Six Nations was a confederacy of Iroquois tribes that included the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas
 }}
-<p>Beginning in the 1600s, the Iroquois Indians participated in the fur trade principally with Dutch and British merchants, although a few Iroquois also traded with the French. The Indians gave beaver and other animal hides to European traders in exchange for muskets, iron tools, blankets, and colorful glass beads, among other items. By 1650 A.D., the Iroquois hunters and trappers had killed off most of the fur-bearing animals in their homeland. To satisfy their desire for more European trade items, the Iroquois turned toward the rich hunting grounds of their neighbors in the Ohio Country. The Indians who lived here were weakened by European diseases that had swept through their villages, killing many of them. Armed with guns, the Iroquois killed or drove out the Indians they found living here. This struggle over the Ohio Country became known as the Beaver Wars. Between 1650 and 1700 A.D., the Iroquois waged a war of extermination. They claimed the land for the Iroquois Confederacy, but most Iroquois hunters and warriors did not live in the Ohio Country. They came primarily to hunt the deer and beaver, returning to their homes in the East after a hunting expedition. The exception to this were the Erie Indians, who lived along the south shore of Lake Erie from New York to approximately modern-day Cleveland, Ohio.</p>
+Beginning in the 1600s, the Iroquois Native American tribe participated in the fur trade principally with Dutch and British merchants, although a few Iroquois also traded with the French. The Native Americans gave beaver and other animal hides to European traders in exchange for muskets, iron tools, blankets, and colorful glass beads, among other items. By 1650 A.D., the Iroquois hunters and trappers had killed off most of the fur-bearing animals in their homeland. To satisfy their desire for more European trade items, the Iroquois turned toward the rich hunting grounds of their neighbors in the Ohio Country. The natives who lived there were weakened by European diseases that had swept through their villages, killing many of them. Armed with guns, the Iroquois killed or drove out the Native Americans they found living here. This struggle over the Ohio Country became known as the Beaver Wars. Between 1650 and 1700 A.D., the Iroquois waged a war of extermination. They claimed the land for the Iroquois Confederacy, but most Iroquois hunters and warriors did not live in the Ohio Country. They came primarily to hunt the deer and beaver, returning to their homes in the East after a hunting expedition. The exception was the Erie tribe, who lived along the south shore of Lake Erie from New York to approximately modern-day Cleveland, Ohio.
-<p>The best historic records of the Beaver Wars come from The Jesuit Relation, a series of letters and accounts written by Jesuit priests who came to America to teach the Indians about the Catholic religion. These records include some of the first written references to the Indians who lived in Ohio before the Beaver Wars: </p>
-<p>&quot;Our Iroquois, have discovered beyond the Cat Nation other and numerous Nations who speak the Algonquian language. There are more than 30 villages whose inhabitants have never had any knowledge of Europeans, they still use only stone hatchets and knives... Our Iroquois carry fire and war thither...&quot;</p>
+The best historic records of the Beaver Wars come from The Jesuit Relation, a series of letters and accounts written by Jesuit priests who came to what is today the United States to teach the Native Americans about the Catholic religion. These records include some of the first written references to the natives who lived in Ohio before the Beaver Wars:
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 | image = [[File:Battle of Tippecanoe.jpg]]
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-<p>In 1811, the Battle of Tippecanoe was a significant defeat for Tecumseh's Native-American Confederation.</p>
+In 1811, the Battle of Tippecanoe was a significant defeat for Tecumseh's Native American Confederation.
-<p>Tecumseh and the Prophet, also known as Tenskwatawa, were the American names of two Shawnee Indians. They also were brothers. During the early 1800s, they devised separate plans to deal with the white settlers flooding onto their land. According to the Prophet, the Master of Life told him that the Indians must give up all white customs and products. If they rejected these items and returned to traditional ways, the Master of Life would reward them by driving the white settlers from the Indians' land. Tecumseh believed, if the natives put aside their traditional differences and worked together, that they would be able to stop white encroachment onto the Indians' land. Tecumseh's Confederation became linked with his brother's religious movement. </p>
-<p>In 1808, the brothers moved their followers to Prophetstown near the Tippecanoe River in the Indiana Territory. The two men continued to spread their messages, and their followers continued to grow in number. By 1811, such a large number of natives lived at Prophetstown that white settlers in Ohio and the Indiana Territory demanded that the government do something to protect them. William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory and future president of the United States of America, led an army against Prophetstown in the fall of 1811. He stopped his force a short distance from the Indian village. Tecumseh was away, recruiting other Indians to join his confederation. The Prophet, lacking the military skills of his brother, decided to attack the Americans. He claimed that the Master of Life had come to him and told him that the Indians would succeed in defeating the Americans. He also stated that the whites' bullets would not harm the natives. The Indians attacked Harrison's men before daybreak on the morning of November 7, 1811. Harrison's army had approximately one thousand troops, including infantry and cavalry. The American army defeated the Indians, but they suffered heavy losses: sixty-two men killed and 126 wounded. The Indian's losses are not easy to know because they carried off most of their dead and wounded. Harrison guessed that at least forty Indians were killed. This battle became known as the Battle of Tippecanoe, which occurred north of present-day West Lafayette, Indiana.</p>
+Tecumseh and the Prophet, also known as Tenskwatawa, were the English names of two Shawnee Native Americans who were brothers. During the early 1800s, they devised separate plans to deal with settlers flooding onto their land. According to the Prophet, the Master of Life told him that the Native Americans must give up all white customs and products. If they rejected these items and returned to traditional ways, the Master of Life would reward them by driving the white settlers from Native American land. Tecumseh believed, if the natives put aside their traditional differences and worked together, that they would be able to stop white encroachment onto the Native American land. Tecumseh's Confederation became linked with his brother's religious movement.
-<p>The American army drove off the Indians and burned Prophetstown to the ground. Most Indians no longer believed in the Prophet. Many returned to their own villages after the defeat. Tecumseh tried to resurrect his confederation, but many people refused to join him again. Tenskwatawa's claims of invincibility contributed significantly to the collapse of Tecumseh's Native alliance. </p>
-<p>While Tecumseh's confederation was weakened after the Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrison's fortunes increased as he became known as &quot;Old Tippecanoe.&quot; Many years later, he used his reputation as a successful Indian fighter to run for President of the United States. His campaign slogan was &quot;Tippecanoe and Tyler too!&quot; </p>
+In 1808, the brothers moved their followers to Prophetstown near the Tippecanoe River in the Indiana Territory. The two men continued to spread their messages, and their followers continued to grow in number. By 1811, such a large number of natives lived at Prophetstown that white settlers in Ohio and the Indiana Territory demanded that the government do something to protect them. William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory and future president of the United States of America, led an army against Prophetstown in the fall of 1811. He stopped his force a short distance from the native village. Tecumseh was away, recruiting other natives to join his confederation. The Prophet, lacking the military skills of his brother, decided to attack the U.S. forces. He claimed that the Master of Life had come to him and told him that the natives would succeed in defeating the U.S. forces. He also stated that the whites' bullets would not harm the natives. The natives attacked Harrison's men before daybreak on the morning of November 7, 1811. Harrison's army had approximately one thousand troops, including infantry and cavalry. The U.S. Army defeated the natives, but they suffered heavy losses: sixty-two men killed and 126 wounded. The Native American losses are not easy to know because they carried off most of their dead and wounded. Harrison guessed that at least forty natives were killed. This battle became known as the Battle of Tippecanoe, which occurred north of present-day West Lafayette, Indiana.
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 | image = [[File:Battle of the Thames.jpg]]
 }}
-<p>The Battle of the Thames was a pivotal American victory during the War of 1812.</p>
+The Battle of the Thames was a pivotal U.S. victory during the War of 1812.
-<p>On October 5, 1813, General William Henry Harrison, who also was the governor of the Indiana Territory and a future president of the United States of America, led an army of 3,500 American troops against a combined force of eight hundred British soldiers and five hundred Indian warriors at Moraviantown, along the Thames River in Ontario, Canada. The British troops were under the command of Colonel Henry Procter. Tecumseh, a Shawnee Indian chief, commanded many of the Indian warriors. The British army was retreating from Fort Malden, Ontario after Oliver Hazard Perry's victory in the Battle of Lake Erie in September 1813. Tecumseh convinced Colonel Procter to make a stand at Moraviantown.</p>
-<p>The American army won a total victory. As soon as the American troops advanced, the British soldiers fled or surrendered. The Indians fought fiercely, but lost heart and scattered after Tecumseh died on the battlefield. The identity of the person who killed Tecumseh is still vigorously debated.</p>
+On October 5, 1813, General William Henry Harrison, who also was the governor of the Indiana Territory and a future president of the United States of America, led an army of 3,500 U.S. troops against a combined force of eight hundred British soldiers and five hundred Native American warriors at Moraviantown, along the Thames River in Ontario, Canada. The British troops were under the command of Colonel Henry Procter. Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, commanded many of the Native American warriors. The British army was retreating from Fort Malden, Ontario after Oliver Hazard Perry's victory in the Battle of Lake Erie in September 1813. Tecumseh convinced Colonel Procter to make a stand at Moraviantown.
-<p>The Battle of the Thames was an important land battle of the War of 1812 in the American Northwest. Since the early 1800s, Tecumseh had sought to form a confederacy of Indian tribes to stop white Americans from seizing Indian land. Tecumseh's death and General Harrison's victory marked the end of Tecumseh's Confederacy, as the natives now lacked a strong, unifying leader. Over the next three decades, Indians in the old Northwest signed treaties, forsaking claims to the land in this region. </p>
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 | caption = This bullet was removed from the body of Emerson Opdycke (1830-1884), a native of Trumbull County. At the beginning of the Civil War, he enlisted as a private in the 41st Ohio Volunteer Infantry and was quickly promoted to captain. At the Battle of Shiloh, Opdycke, despite being wounded, picked up the regiment's fallen flag and led a charge that halted the Confederate advance. Governor Tod ordered Opdycke home, promoted him to colonel and asked him to recruit and command the 125th Ohio Volunteer Infantry. Throughout the rest of the war, this unit was known for its courage and tenacity, earning the name "Opdycke's Tigers."
 }}
-<p>The Battle of Shiloh occurred on April 6 and 7, 1862, at Pittsburg Landing on the Tennessee River. Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston attacked a Union army under the command of General Ulysses S. Grant, hoping to repel the Northern advance.</p>
+The Battle of Shiloh occurred on April 6 and 7, 1862, at Pittsburg Landing on the Tennessee River. Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston attacked a Union army under the command of General Ulysses S. Grant, hoping to repel the Union advance.
-<p>In the previous few months, the Union military had won several victories in Kentucky and Tennessee. Grant and his Army of the Tennessee, numbering approximately forty thousand men, had captured Confederate Forts Henry and Donelson in February. General Don Carlos Buell, commander of the Army of the Ohio, had secured Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, several weeks later. Grant was now located at Pittsburg Landing in southwestern Tennessee. He was waiting for the arrival of the Army of the Ohio's thirty-five thousand men. The combined Union force then would advance against Johnston's nearly forty thousand Confederates.</p>
-<p>Johnston hoped to defeat Grant before the two Union armies could combine their numbers. The Confederates initially planned to advance from Corinth, Mississippi, an important railroad junction, against Grant's army on April 3. However, Johnston's men were not in position to attack the Union soldiers until the morning of April 6. Grant did not expect an attack. He was advancing against the Confederates. He believed that Johnston was on the defensive and would not launch an assault. Because of Grant's beliefs, the Northern soldiers had prepared only limited defenses. </p>
+In the previous few months, the Union military had won several victories in Kentucky and Tennessee. Grant and his Army of the Tennessee, numbering approximately forty-thousand men, had captured Confederate Forts Henry and Donelson in February. General Don Carlos Buell, commander of the Army of the Ohio, had secured Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, several weeks earlier. Grant was now located at Pittsburg Landing in southwestern Tennessee. He was waiting for the arrival of the Army of the Ohio's thirty-five thousand men. The combined Union force then would advance against Johnston's nearly forty thousand Confederates.
-<p>As the Confederates launched their assault in the early morning hours of April 6, the Union soldiers put up fierce resistance, but they were still driven back toward the Tennessee River. By nightfall, the Confederates had driven the Northerners back more than a mile from their early morning positions. One of the main reasons that the Union army was not completely defeated was the death of Johnston in the fighting. His second in command, General P.G.T. Beauregard, was an able military commander. However, it was difficult for Beauregard to assume command in the middle of the battle and direct the assault against the Union soldiers.</p>
-<p>On the evening of April 6, Union reinforcements arrived. One division of Grant's army had been too far away to participate in the first day of the battle. Several divisions from the Army of the Ohio also arrived. The next morning, the Northern soldiers, despite the setback that they had endured the day before, took the offensive. Beauregard's army put up a strong resistance, but it had no reinforcements. Facing the combined strength of two Union armies, the Confederates were forced to retreat from the battlefield. The Union soldiers did not pursue the Confederates.</p>
+Johnston hoped to defeat Grant before the two Union armies could combine their numbers. The Confederates initially planned to advance from Corinth, Mississippi, an important railroad junction, against Grant's army on April 3. However, Johnston's men were not in position to attack the Union soldiers until the morning of April 6. Grant did not expect an attack, and was advancing against the Confederates. He believed that Johnston was on the defensive and would not launch an assault. Because of Grant's beliefs, the Union soldiers had prepared only limited defenses.
-<p>At the Battle of Shiloh, approximately twenty thousand men were killed or wounded. The casualties were equally divided between the two sides. While Grant did not immediately advance after the battle, he had severely weakened the Confederate force opposing him. The Southerners abandoned Corinth, Mississippi, approximately one month later. The North took control of this important railroad center. </p>
-<p>Grant endured harsh criticism for his conduct at Shiloh. Rumors circulated that Grant was not on the battlefield most of the first day because he was drunk. It was true that Grant was not on the battlefield when the initial attack occurred, but he arrived by 9:00 AM. His headquarters was located several miles behind the majority of his troops. Grant was not drunk. Some historians have argued that he did deserve criticism for not establishing his headquarters closer to his men. He also has been criticized for not ordering his men to prepare adequate defenses, even if he did not expect an attack.</p>
+As the Confederates launched their assault in the early morning hours of April 6, the Union soldiers put up fierce resistance, but they were still driven back toward the Tennessee River. By nightfall, the Confederates had driven the Union back more than a mile from their early morning positions. One of the main reasons that the Union army was not completely defeated was the death of Johnston in the fighting. His second in command, General P.G.T. Beauregard, was an able military commander. However, it was difficult for Beauregard to assume command in the middle of the battle and direct the assault against the Union soldiers.
-<p>Ohio residents were joyous about the Northern victory, but they also were discouraged by rumors that many Ohio regiments fled the battlefield on the first day of the fight. Ohioans also united to assist the soldiers. The state government dispatched several boats of supplies and medicine to Grant's army following the battle. The government also sent doctors and nurses to assist the wounded soldiers.</p>
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-<p>The Battle of Peckuwe was the largest battle of the American Revolution to occur west of the Allegheny Mountains.</p>
+The Battle of Peckuwe was the largest battle of the American Revolution to occur west of the Allegheny Mountains.
-<p>During the summer of 1780, George Rogers Clark led approximately 1,050 men, primarily militiamen from Kentucky, against Shawnee Indian settlements at Old Chillicothe and Peckuwe. The Shawnee destroyed Old Chillicothe as Clark's men approached on August 6. On August 8, the militiamen arrived at Peckuwe, a Shawnee village that was located just west of present-day Springfield, Ohio on the Mad River. Most of the natives resided in log cabins. Clark's men succeeded in driving the Shawnee from Peckuwe and proceeded to destroy the town. Clark had fourteen men killed and an additional thirteen wounded. Exact native casualties are unknown, but Clark estimated that they were three times the number that his own men had suffered.</p>
-<p>The Battle of Peckuwe sometimes is confused with the Battle of Piqua, which occurred more than two years later. These two battles, as well as the other conflicts between white and Native Americans, only further enhanced the tensions between the two groups both during and following the American Revolution.</p>
+During the summer of 1780, George Rogers Clark led approximately 1,050 men, primarily militiamen from Kentucky, against Shawnee Native American settlements at Old Chillicothe and Peckuwe. The Shawnee destroyed Old Chillicothe as Clark's men approached on August 6. On August 8, the militiamen arrived at Peckuwe, a Shawnee village that was located just west of present-day Springfield, Ohio on the Mad River. Most of the natives resided in log cabins. Clark's men succeeded in driving the Shawnee from Peckuwe and proceeded to destroy the town. Clark had fourteen men killed and an additional thirteen wounded. Exact native casualties are unknown, but Clark estimated that they were three times the number that his own men had suffered.
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-<p>In 1857, the Battle of Lumbarton occurred between federal marshals, who were enforcing the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, and anti-slavery Ohioans.</p>
+In 1857, the Battle of Lumbarton occurred between federal marshals, who were enforcing the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, and anti-slavery Ohioans.
-<p>Addison White, an escaped slave, set the chain of events in motion that culminated in the Battle of Lumbarton. In 1856, White ran away from Kentucky to Ohio along the Underground Railroad. He eventually made his way to Mechanicsburg, Ohio, in Champaign County. Here, he sought refuge in the home of Udney Hyde. White remained in the Hyde home for eight months, purportedly helping Hyde recover from a broken ankle. White's owner and some federal marshals eventually located the fugitive slave at Hyde's home. The marshals attempted to capture White, who had barricaded himself in the loft of a log cabin with a gun. White was able to drive the marshals away, but they soon returned. Mechanicsburg townspeople had also arrived on the scene and surrounded the barn. Armed with pitchforks and other weapons, they refused to let the marshals take the fugitive slave, who, the mob falsely said, had fled to Canada. The marshals did arrest several people for aiding White in his escape. </p>
-<p>The marshals took their prisoners, including Udney Hyde's son, Russell Hyde, towards Urbana, Ohio. The sheriff of Clark County attempted to arrest the federal marshals for illegally detaining the men. The marshals refused to release the captives and proceeded to beat the sheriff and the posse severely. Eventually, a mob of Ohioans detained the marshals and jailed them in Springfield, Ohio on the charge of assault with intent to kill, due to the altercation with the Clark County sheriff. The first skirmish between the marshals and the sheriff's posse and the second one with the mob of Ohioans became known as the Battle of Lumbarton.</p>
+Addison White, an escaped slave, set the chain of events in motion that culminated in the Battle of Lumbarton. In 1856, White ran away from Kentucky to Ohio along the Underground Railroad. He eventually made his way to Mechanicsburg, Ohio, in Champaign County. Here, he sought refuge in the home of Udney Hyde. White remained in the Hyde home for eight months, purportedly helping Hyde recover from a broken ankle. White's owner and some federal marshals eventually located the fugitive slave at Hyde's home. The marshals attempted to capture White, who had barricaded himself in the loft of a log cabin with a gun. White was able to drive the marshals away, but they soon returned. Mechanicsburg townspeople had also arrived on the scene and surrounded the barn. Armed with pitchforks and other weapons, they refused to let the marshals take the fugitive slave, who, the mob falsely said, had fled to Canada. The marshals did arrest several people for aiding White in his escape.
-<p>Eventually, Ohio Governor Salmon P. Chase negotiated the release of the federal prisoners as well as of the marshals, with all charges being dropped against both groups. Mechanicsburg residents raised 950 dollars and purchased Addison White's freedom from his owner. Daniel White agreed to the sale. </p>
-<p>The Battle of Lumbarton illustrates the increasing tensions between pro-slavery and anti-slavery forces during the mid nineteenth century. These tensions eventually contributed to the American Civil War's outbreak in 1861.</p>
+The marshals took their prisoners, including Udney Hyde's son, Russell Hyde, towards Urbana, Ohio. The sheriff of Clark County attempted to arrest the federal marshals for illegally detaining the men. The marshals refused to release the captives and proceeded to beat the sheriff and the posse severely. Eventually, a mob of Ohioans detained the marshals and jailed them in Springfield, Ohio on the charge of assault with intent to kill, due to the altercation with the Clark County sheriff. The first skirmish between the marshals and the sheriff's posse and the second one with the mob of Ohioans became known as the Battle of Lumbarton.
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+[[Category:Reform]][[Category:WIP]]

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 | caption = Perry's Victory, painted by William Henry Powell of Cincinnati in 1865, illustrates Oliver Hazard Perry's decisive victory over the British fleet in the Battle of Lake Erie (September 10, 1813). This victory ensured American control of the Great Lakes. The painting is currently hanging in the rotunda of the Ohio Statehouse.
 }}
-<p>The Battle of Lake Erie was a pivotal naval engagement between British and American forces during the War of 1812.</p>
+The Battle of Lake Erie was a pivotal naval engagement between British and U.S. forces during the War of 1812.
-<p>At the beginning of the War of 1812, the United States sent Oliver Hazard Perry to command the American forces on Lake Erie. When he arrived in Presque Isle (modern-day Erie, Pennsylvania), Perry commissioned several carpenters to build a fleet of ships. Within a year, he had nine ships. However, only two, the <em>Lawrence</em> and the <em>Niagara</em>, were fit for battle. Perry had also assembled a force of about five hundred men to serve under him, and after several months of drilling, they were a capable naval unit.</p>
-<p>In September 1813, Perry set sail for Put-In Bay to meet the British fleet, which was under the command of Robert Heriot Barclay. Like the Americans, the English had begun constructing a fleet at the war's beginning to secure control of Lake Erie. The British were anticipating an easy victory over Perry's force. On September 10, 1813, the Battle of Lake Erie took place. The Americans had nine ships, while the British had six. Early in the battle, the British were taking a heavy toll on the American ships, principally because the British cannons were much more accurate at long distances. When the British destroyed the <em>Lawrence, </em>Perry took the ship's flag and transferred to the <em>Niagara</em>. After Perry moved to the <em>Niagara</em>, the battle began to turn for the Americans. Before Perry's arrival on the <em>Niagara</em>, this ship had hardly engaged the British fleet. Now, the <em>Niagara</em> and Perry inflicted heavy cannon fire on the British ships. The commander of every British ship was killed or wounded, leaving the British ships under the command of junior officers with limited experience. Perry took advantage of this situation. The <em>Niagara</em> rammed the British lead ship while the sailors fired rifles at the British seamen. By nightfall, the British had lowered their flag and surrendered to Perry, who was only twenty-seven years old.</p>
+At the beginning of the War of 1812, the United States sent Oliver Hazard Perry to command the U.S. forces on Lake Erie. When he arrived in Presque Isle (modern-day Erie, Pennsylvania), Perry commissioned several carpenters to build a fleet of ships. Within a year, he had nine ships. However, only two, the Lawrence and the Niagara, were fit for battle. Perry had also assembled a force of about five hundred men to serve under him, and after several months of drilling, they were a capable naval unit.
-<p>Perry sent a dispatch to General William Henry Harrison, recounting the details of the battle. In the dispatch, he wrote, &quot;We have met the enemy, and they are ours.&quot;</p>
-<p>The American victory at the Battle of Lake Erie cut off the British supply lines and forced them to abandon Detroit. It also paved the way for General Harrison's attack on the British and Indian forces at the Battle of the Thames.</p>
+In September 1813, Perry set sail for Put-In Bay to meet the British fleet, which was under the command of Robert Heriot Barclay. Like the U.S., the British had begun constructing a fleet at the war's beginning to secure control of Lake Erie. The British were anticipating an easy victory over Perry's force. On September 10, 1813, the Battle of Lake Erie took place. The U.S. forces had nine ships, while the British had six. Early in the battle, the British were taking a heavy toll on the U.S. ships, principally because the British cannons were much more accurate at long distances. When the British destroyed the Lawrence, Perry took the ship's flag and transferred to the Niagara. After Perry moved to the Niagara, the battle began to turn for the United States. Before Perry's arrival on the Niagara, this ship had hardly engaged the British fleet. Now, the Niagara and Perry inflicted heavy cannon fire on the British ships. The commander of every British ship was killed or wounded, leaving the British ships under the command of junior officers with limited experience. Perry took advantage of this situation. The Niagara rammed the British lead ship while the sailors fired rifles at the British seamen. By nightfall, the British had lowered their flag and surrendered to Perry, who was only twenty-seven years old.
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 | caption = Union and Confederate dead, Gettysburg Battlefield, Pa., July 1863. Photographed by Timothy H. O'Sullivan.
 }}
-<p>In June 1863, General Robert E. Lee and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia launched an invasion of the North. </p>
+In June 1863, General Robert E. Lee and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia launched an invasion of the Union.
-<p>On July 1, General George Meade and the Union's Army of the Potomac met Lee's force at the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The fighting started on July 1. While the Northern army numbered approximately eighty-five thousand men to the South's seventy-five thousand soldiers, the Confederates outnumbered the Union soldiers as the battle opened. The Confederates drove the Northerners through the town. The Union soldiers took up a defensive position on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Ridge to the south and east of Gettysburg. Most Confederate troops took position on nearby Seminary Ridge to the west of Gettysburg and prepared for the next day's fighting.</p>
-<p>During the evening of July 1, additional Union troops arrived. The Northerners fortified their position. The next day Confederate forces assaulted the southern and northern portions of the Union line, but the attacks were not well coordinated and failed to breach the Northern position. On July 3, Lee ordered parts of three Confederate divisions to assault the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Known as Pickett's Charge, nearly three-quarters of the Confederate soldiers involved in this attack were killed or wounded. On July 4, the Army of Northern Virginia began its retreat back to the South.</p>
+On July 1, General George Meade and the Union's Army of the Potomac met Lee's force at the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The fighting started on July 1. While the Union army numbered approximately eighty-five thousand men to the Confederacy’s seventy-five thousand soldiers, the Confederates outnumbered the Union soldiers as the battle opened. The Confederates drove the Northerners through the town. The Union soldiers took up a defensive position on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Ridge to the south and east of Gettysburg. Most Confederate troops took position on nearby Seminary Ridge to the west of Gettysburg and prepared for the next day's fighting.
-<p>Numerous Ohioans participated in the Battle of Gettysburg. At least fifteen Ohio units fought at the battle. These units included:</p>
-<ul>
+During the evening of July 1, additional Union troops arrived. The Union fortified their position. The next day Confederate forces assaulted the southern and northern portions of the Union line, but the attacks were not well coordinated and failed to breach the Union position. On July 3, Lee ordered parts of three Confederate divisions to assault the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Known as Pickett's Charge, nearly three-quarters of the Confederate soldiers involved in this attack were killed or wounded. On July 4, the Army of Northern Virginia began its retreat back to the South.
- <li>4<sup>th</sup> Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
- <li>5<sup>th </sup>Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
+Numerous Ohioans participated in the Battle of Gettysburg. At least fifteen Ohio units fought at the battle. These units included:
- <li>7<sup>th </sup>Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
- <li>8<sup>th </sup>Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
+•	4th Ohio Volunteer Infantry
- <li>25<sup>th </sup>Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
- <li>29<sup>th</sup> Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
+•	5th Ohio Volunteer Infantry
- <li>55<sup>th </sup>Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
- <li>61<sup>st </sup>Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
+•	7th Ohio Volunteer Infantry
- <li>66<sup>th </sup>Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
- <li>73<sup>rd </sup>Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
+•	8th Ohio Volunteer Infantry
- <li>75<sup>th </sup>Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
- <li>82<sup>nd </sup>Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
+•	25th Ohio Volunteer Infantry
- <li>107<sup>th </sup>Ohio Volunteer Infantry</li>
- <li>1<sup>st</sup> Artillery, Battery H, I, K, L</li>
+•	29th Ohio Volunteer Infantry
- <li>1<sup>st</sup> Ohio Cavalry Regiment </li>
-</ul>
+•	55th Ohio Volunteer Infantry
-<p>Many historians have labeled this battle, along with the capture of Vicksburg, Mississippi, as the &quot;high tide&quot; of the Confederacy. According to some scholars, Southerners had no hope of winning the war and their independence after these two battles. Other historians have challenged this interpretation. The war lasted almost two more years. The South did not simply give up the fight after these two defeats. Confederates, both soldiers and civilians, remained hopeful in their diaries and letters that the South would win the wider war.</p>
-<p>These defeats did discourage some Southerners. Other Southerners, though, were proud of their soldiers for taking the war to the North. Many Northerners were also hopeful. In the Battle of Vicksburg, Union General Ulysses S. Grant succeeded in gaining control of the Mississippi River for the North, effectively splitting the South into two parts. General Meade had repelled Lee's invasion. Many Northerners believed that the Union was closer to a final victory in the war. Other Northerners were less confident, including many Ohioans. Meade had defeated Lee's army, but the Confederates still had been able to launch an invasion of the North. At the same time that the Battle of Gettysburg was occurring, a Confederate force under John Hunt Morgan was raiding southern Indiana and Ohio. Northern soldiers eventually brought Morgan's Raid to an end. However, Morgan's Raid and Lee's invasion caused some Northerners to question whether their military would win the war. These two Confederate invasions inspired the Peace Democrats, including those in Ohio, to bring additional pressure on President Abraham Lincoln to negotiate a peace agreement with the Confederacy.</p>
+•	61st Ohio Volunteer Infantry
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 | caption = Carte de visite portrait of Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant, 1865. Grant was commissioned Lieutenant General by Abraham Lincoln in March 1864. The black armband hanging from his sleeve may be a mourning band for President Abraham Lincoln who was assassinated on April 14, 1865.
 }}
-<p>In February 1862, General Ulysses S. Grant, a native Ohioan, led a Union force that captured Fort Henry from the Confederacy. </p>
+In February 1862, General Ulysses S. Grant, a native Ohioan, led a Union force that captured Fort Henry from the Confederacy.
-<p>On February 4, 1862, Union warships transported soldiers under Grant's command to Fort Henry. Located in Tennessee, Fort Henry guarded the Tennessee River. Nine Union ships under the command of Flag Officer Andrew Foote opened fire on the fort on February 6. Before the Northerners attacked, Confederate Brigadier-General Lloyd Tilghman evacuated the majority of his troops. The Confederates traveled to Fort Donelson, a post located approximately ten miles away along the Cumberland River. Tilghman left only some artillerymen inside Fort Henry to return fire to the Union's attack. After two hours of bombardment, the Southerners surrendered. Grant's force then advanced on Fort Donelson, capturing this installation on February 16.</p>
-<p>The Northern victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson were the first significant ones for the Union in the western theater of the war. They also gave the Northern military unfettered access to the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, allowing the Union to gain deeper access into the South and an easier means to transport troops and supplies. These victories enhanced Northern morale, including that of Ohioans. Previously, many Northerners were demoralized by Southern victories at the Battles of First Bull Run and Ball's Bluff in 1861. The Battles of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson also signaled Grant's ascendancy as a prominent military leader for the North. </p>
+On February 4, 1862, Union warships transported soldiers under Grant's command to Fort Henry. Located in Tennessee, Fort Henry guarded the Tennessee River. Nine Union ships under the command of Flag Officer Andrew Foote opened fire on the fort on February 6. Before the Union attacked, Confederate Brigadier-General Lloyd Tilghman evacuated the majority of his troops. The Confederates traveled to Fort Donelson, a post located approximately ten miles away along the Cumberland River. Tilghman left only some artillerymen inside Fort Henry to return fire to the Union's attack. After two hours of bombardment, the Confederates surrendered. Grant's force then advanced on Fort Donelson, capturing this installation on February 16.
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 | caption = Portrait of Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant in full uniform, ca. 1864-1865. Grant was commissioned Lieutenant General by Abraham Lincoln in March 1864 and soon after appointed General in Chief of the United States Army. Portraits of famous generals were mass produced and popular with collectors.
 }}
-<p>In February 1862, General Ulysses S. Grant, a native Ohioan, led a Union force that captured Fort Donelson from the Confederacy. </p>
+In February 1862, General Ulysses S. Grant, a native Ohioan, led a Union force that captured Fort Donelson from the Confederacy.
-<p>Following his victory at Fort Henry on the Tennessee River, Grant marched his troops to Fort Donelson. Located in Tennessee, Fort Donelson guarded the Cumberland River. The Northerners arrived on February 12, 1862. The next day, a Union gunboat opened fire on the fort but did minimal damage to the structure. That evening additional ships and soldiers arrived, giving Grant almost a three to one advantage in the number of men available for a fight. The Union ships bombarded the Confederate position on February 14, but the ships again failed to achieve any major progress.</p>
-<p>On February 15, Confederate soldiers attacked the Northern infantrymen. Although the Southerners had some initial success, Grant's men regrouped and occupied part of Fort Donelson's outer defenses along the Confederate right flank. That night, many of the Confederate soldiers fled from the fort, leaving a small number of men under Brigadier-General Simon Buckner's command. On the morning of February 16, Buckner sent a message to Grant, requesting surrender terms. Grant replied with, &quot;No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted.&quot; Grant's response earned him the nickname &quot;Unconditional Surrender Grant&quot; and helped make him a hero in the North. Vastly outnumbered, the Confederates immediately surrendered and gave the Union control of much of the Cumberland River.</p>
+Following his victory at Fort Henry on the Tennessee River, Grant marched his troops to Fort Donelson. Located in Tennessee, Fort Donelson guarded the Cumberland River. The Union arrived on February 12, 1862. The next day, a Union gunboat opened fire on the fort but did minimal damage to the structure. That evening additional ships and soldiers arrived, giving Grant almost a three to one advantage in the number of men available for a fight. The Union ships bombarded the Confederate position on February 14, but the ships again failed to achieve any major progress.
-<p>On the afternoon of February 16, Grant and Buckner met to formalize the surrender. These two men had attended the United States Military Academy at West Point together and they were good friends. Grant even paid Buckner some money to settle an old debt that he owed the Southerner at this meeting. Despite the Northerner's victory, Buckner and Grant stayed friends for the rest of their lives. Buckner served as a pallbearer at Grant's funeral. </p>
-<p>The Northern victories at Fort Henry and Fort Donelson were the first significant ones for the Union in the western theater of the war. They also gave the Northern military unfettered access to the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, allowing the Union to gain deeper access into the South and an easier means to transport troops and supplies. These victories enhanced Northern morale, including that of Ohioans. Previously, many Northerners were demoralized by Southern victories at the Battles of First Bull Run and Ball's Bluff in 1861. The Battles of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson also signaled Grant's ascendancy as a prominent military leader for the North. </p>
+On February 15, Confederate soldiers attacked the Union infantry. Although the Confederates had some initial success, Grant's men regrouped and occupied part of Fort Donelson's outer defenses along the Confederate right flank. That night, many of the Confederate soldiers fled from the fort, leaving a small number of men under Brigadier-General Simon Buckner's command. On the morning of February 16, Buckner sent a message to Grant, requesting surrender terms. Grant replied with, "No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted." Grant's response earned him the nickname "Unconditional Surrender Grant" and helped make him a hero in the Union. Vastly outnumbered, the Confederates immediately surrendered and gave the Union control of much of the Cumberland River.
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 | caption = "Charge of the Dragoons at Fallen Timbers," painted by R.T. Zogbaum, ca. 1895. The painting illustrates General Anthony Wayne's campaign against the Ohio Indians in 1794.
 }}
-<p>The Battle of Fallen Timbers was an important victory for the United States Army against natives in the Northwest Territory.</p>
+The Battle of Fallen Timbers was an important victory for the United States Army against Native Americans in the Northwest Territory.
-<p>In 1792, President George Washington appointed Anthony Wayne as the commander of the United States Army of the Northwest, then currently serving in the Northwest Territory. The major purpose of this army was to defend American settlers from Indian attack. Josiah Harmar and Arthur St. Clair had both suffered defeat at the hands of Native Americans in the previous few years, and Washington hoped that Wayne would be more successful. Wayne arrived with additional troops to supplement the Army of the Northwest in May 1793. He positioned his force at Fort Washington, near Cincinnati. Wayne repeatedly drilled his troops, hoping to avoid the horrific defeats that befell Harmar and St. Clair. In October, Wayne finally left the Cincinnati area and headed to Fort Jefferson. He proceeded six miles to the north of Fort Jefferson and ordered the construction of Fort Greene Ville. His army remained here for the winter of 1793-1794. He also had his men build Fort Recovery on the site of St. Clair's Defeat.</p>
-<p>Tensions escalated between the Americans and the Indians during the summer of 1794. On June 30, 1,500 Shawnee Indians, Miami Indians, Delaware Indians, Ottawa Indians, and Ojibwa Indians led by Little Turtle attacked a supply train leaving Fort Recovery for Fort Greene Ville, killing or capturing many of the white Americans. In late July, Wayne moved into northwestern Ohio. In early August, he ordered his men to construct Fort Defiance to protect his army as well as to serve as a supply depot. During this time, Wayne's men also destroyed native villages and crops. Believing that the Indians needed to sue for peace, Little Turtle, a leader of the Miami Indians refused to lead the tribes into battle and deferred to Blue Jacket, a Shawnee leader.</p>
+In 1792, President George Washington appointed Anthony Wayne as the commander of the United States Army of the Northwest, then currently serving in the Northwest Territory. The major purpose of this army was to defend U.S. settlers from Native American attacks. Josiah Harmar and Arthur St. Clair had both suffered defeat at the hands of Native Americans in the previous few years, and Washington hoped that Wayne would be more successful. Wayne arrived with additional troops to supplement the Army of the Northwest in May 1793. He positioned his force at Fort Washington, near Cincinnati. Wayne repeatedly drilled his troops, hoping to avoid the horrific defeats that befell Harmar and St. Clair. In October, Wayne finally left the Cincinnati area and headed to Fort Jefferson. He proceeded six miles to the north of Fort Jefferson and ordered the construction of Fort Greene Ville. His army remained here for the winter of 1793-1794. He also had his men build Fort Recovery on the site of St. Clair's Defeat.
-<p>As Wayne moved toward the Maumee River, the Indians prepared to attack him in an area known as Fallen Timbers. It was a place where a tornado had knocked down many trees. The Indians expected the Americans to arrive on August 19, but the white soldiers did not arrive until the next day. The natives fasted before the battle for spiritual and cultural reasons and to avoid having food in their stomachs. The likelihood of infection increased if a person was wounded in the stomach and there was food in it. By August 20, the natives were weak from hunger. </p>
-<p>Although the Indians used the fallen trees for cover, Wayne's men quickly drove the Indians from the battlefield. The Americans had thirty-three men killed and roughly one hundred wounded, while the Indians lost approximately twice that number. The fight became known as the Battle of Fallen Timbers. Blue Jacket's followers retreated to Fort Miamis, hoping the English would provide them with protection and assistance against Wayne's army. The English refused. Wayne followed the natives to the fort. Upon his arrival, Wayne ordered the British to evacuate the Northwest Territory. The English commander refused. Rather than force the issue, Wayne decided to withdraw to Fort Greene Ville.</p>
+Tensions escalated between the United States and the Native Americans during the summer of 1794. On June 30, 1,500 Native Americans from numerous tribes, including the Shawnee, Miami, Delaware, Ottawa, and Ojibwa tribes led by Little Turtle attacked a supply train leaving Fort Recovery for Fort Greene Ville, killing or capturing many of the U.S. forces. In late July, Wayne moved into northwestern Ohio. In early August, he ordered his men to construct Fort Defiance to protect his army as well as to serve as a supply depot. During this time, Wayne's men also destroyed native villages and crops. Believing that the natives needed to sue for peace, Little Turtle, a leader of the Miami tribe refused to lead the tribes into battle and deferred to Blue Jacket, a Shawnee leader.
-<p>For the next year, Wayne stayed at Fort Greene Ville, negotiating a treaty with the Indians. The natives realized that they were at a serious disadvantage with the Americans, especially because of England's refusal to support the Indians. On August 3, 1795, the Treaty of Greeneville was signed. Representatives from the Miami Indians, the Wyandot Indians, the Shawnee Indians, the Delaware Indians, and several other tribes agreed to move to the northwestern part of what is now the State of Ohio. Not all Indians concurred with the treaty, and bloodshed continued to dominate the region for the next twenty years as Americans and Indians struggled for control.</p>
 ==See Also==
 <div class="seeAlsoText">
@@ Line 44: / Line 49: @@
 [[Category:Frontier Ohio]]
 [[Category:Military]]
-[[Category:Statehood]]
+[[Category:Statehood]][[Category:WIP]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-''Ohio History Central'' is an evolving, dynamic online encyclopedia that includes information about Ohio's natural history, prehistory, and history. ''Ohio History Central'' is perfect for anyone wanting to learn more about Ohio!
+<div id="mf-home">''Ohio History Central'' is an evolving, dynamic online encyclopedia that includes information about Ohio's natural history, prehistory, and history. ''Ohio History Central'' is perfect for anyone wanting to learn more about Ohio!
 ''Ohio History Central'' was researched and written by staff at the Ohio Historical Society. We welcome your suggestions, questions, and other feedback at [mailto:ohc@ohiohistory.org ohc@ohiohistory.org]
@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 :5. Total Population: 11,353,140 (as of 2000 census)

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{infobox
-| image = [[File:Scott, Robert Kingston.jpg]]
+| image = [[File:Lester, Angelina.jpg]]
-| caption = Photograph of engraving of Colonel Robert Kingston 	Scott, 68th Ohio Volunteer Infantry (Civil War), chief 	of South Carolina's Freedmen's Bureau, as well as 	governor of that state, ca. 1860-1869.
+| caption = Mrs. Angelina Lester, a former slave who resided in Youngstown, Ohio, ca. 1937.
 }}
+<p>The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands was to provide displaced persons of the South, including both whites and blacks, with assistance at the end of the American Civil War.</p>
-The '''Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands''' was to provide displaced persons of the South, including both whites and blacks, with assistance at the end of the American Civil War.
+<p>The United States government formally created the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands on March 3, 1865. Better known as the Freedmen's Bureau, the War Department oversaw the agency. General Oliver Otis Howard served as the bureau's director. The Freedmen's Bureau opened schools to provide newly freed African Americans and whites with educational opportunities. This agency also helped find employment for people of all races. </p>
+<p>In 1866, the United States Congress voted to continue the Freedmen's Bureau. President Andrew Johnson vetoed the Congress' action. Johnson did not desire to punish all white Southerners for the Civil War. He blamed the planter elite for the conflict. Johnson wanted to reunite the nation as quickly as possible, while punishing the leaders of the rebellion. President Johnson, as did many white Southerners, believed that the Freedmen's Bureau was an attempt by Northerners to make African Americans superior to whites in the South. The Freedmen's Bureau's actions escalated tensions between the North and the South during Reconstruction.</p>
-The United States government formally created the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands on March 3, 1865. Better known as the Freedmen's Bureau, the War Department oversaw the agency. General Oliver Otis Howard served as the bureau's director. The Freedmen's Bureau opened schools to provide newly freed African Americans and whites with educational opportunities. This agency also helped find employment for people of all races.
+<p>Johnson's veto incensed the Radical Republicans, including those from Ohio, in Congress. These men sought to punish the South for the Civil War and also sought to build a loyal political following among African Americans. The Congress overturned Johnson's veto. Following the congressional elections of 1866, the Republican Party controlled more than two-thirds of the seats in both houses of Congress. As a result of the Republican victory in 1866, the Congress now dictated how reconstruction of the Union would proceed. In effect, the Congress rejected Johnson's plan for Reconstruction and implemented a much harsher policy toward white Southerners.</p>
+<p>Historians debate how successful the Freedmen's Bureau was in assisting both whites and blacks at the end of the Civil War. The agency did establish numerous schools across the South, but white Southerners routinely prevented African Americans from attending the schools through threats of violence. In many cases, white Southerners also forced the schools to close by threatening the teachers. Fearing for their lives, the teachers, many of whom were single white women from the North, fled for their lives. The Freedmen's Bureau also found jobs for African Americans in the post-war South, but unfortunately for the blacks, usually these jobs were working as farm laborers or sharecroppers for their former owners. Although all races could receive aid from the Freedmen's Bureau, most Southern whites refused to seek assistance from the agency.</p>
-In 1866, the United States Congress voted to continue the Freedmen's Bureau. President Andrew Johnson vetoed the Congress' action. Johnson did not desire to punish all white Southerners for the Civil War. He blamed the planter elite for the conflict. Johnson wanted to reunite the nation as quickly as possible, while punishing the leaders of the rebellion. President Johnson, as did many white Southerners, believed that the Freedmen's Bureau was an attempt by Northerners to make African Americans superior to whites in the South. The Freedmen's Bureau's actions escalated tensions between the North and the South during Reconstruction.
+==See Also==
+<div class="seeAlsoText">
-Johnson's veto incensed the Radical Republicans, including those from Ohio, in Congress. These men sought to punish the South for the Civil War and also sought to build a loyal political following among African Americans. The Congress overturned Johnson's veto. Following the congressional elections of 1866, the Republican Party controlled more than two-thirds of the seats in both houses of Congress. As a result of the Republican victory in 1866, the Congress now dictated how reconstruction of the Union would proceed. In effect, the Congress rejected Johnson's plan for Reconstruction and implemented a much harsher policy toward white Southerners.
+*[[African Americans]]
+*[[American Civil War]]
-Historians debate how successful the Freedmen's Bureau was in assisting both whites and blacks at the end of the Civil War. The agency did establish numerous schools across the South, but white Southerners routinely prevented African Americans from attending the schools through threats of violence. In many cases, white Southerners also forced the schools to close by threatening the teachers. Fearing for their lives, the teachers, many of whom were single white women from the North, fled for their lives. The Freedmen's Bureau also found jobs for African Americans in the post-war South, but unfortunately for the blacks, usually these jobs were working as farm laborers or sharecroppers for their former owners. Although all races could receive aid from the Freedmen's Bureau, most Southern whites refused to seek assistance from the agency.
+*[[Andrew Johnson]]
-[[Category:History Organizations]]
+*[[Ohio]]
-[[Category:Industrialization and Urbanization]][[Category:Government and Politics]][[Category:African Americans]]
+*[[Radical Republicans]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-The Ohio legislature passed a series of laws in 1807 to discourage African American migration to the state.
+{{infobox
+| image = [[File:.]]
-Although slavery was not allowed in Ohio as part of the Constitution of 1803, most African Americans were not treated as equals to white people in the new state. Many Ohioans had come from Southern states that allowed slavery and were not willing to grant rights to African Americans. Other Ohioans were concerned about economic competition from free blacks who might choose to move to the state. As a result of these sentiments, as early as 1804, Ohio legislators had implemented black laws. The 1807 laws were a continuation of these earlier laws.
+}}
+<p>The Ohio legislature passed a series of laws in 1807 to discourage African American migration to the state. </p>
-Among other provisions, these laws required black people to prove that they were not slaves and to find at least two people who would guarantee a surety of five hundred dollars for the African Americans' good behavior. The laws also limited African Americans' rights to marry whites and to gun-ownership, as well as to several other freedoms that whites held. The Black Laws and other policies deterred some African Americans from settling in Ohio.
+<p>Although slavery was not allowed in Ohio as part of the Constitution of 1803, most African Americans were not treated as equals to white people in the new state. Many Ohioans had come from Southern states that allowed slavery and were not willing to grant rights to African Americans. Other Ohioans were concerned about economic competition from free blacks who might choose to move to the state. As a result of these sentiments, as early as 1804, Ohio legislators had implemented black laws. The 1807 laws were a continuation of these earlier laws. </p>
+<p>Among other provisions, these laws required black people to prove that they were not slaves and to find at least two people who would guarantee a surety of five hundred dollars for the African Americans' good behavior. The laws also limited African Americans' rights to marry whites and to gun-ownership, as well as to several other freedoms that whites held. The Black Laws and other policies deterred some African Americans from settling in Ohio.</p>
-In the late 1840s, the Black Laws became a political issue once again. Members of the Free Soil Party pushed to have the laws repealed and were partially successful in doing so in 1849. The changes in the laws were accomplished in part because Ohio Democrats backed the Black Laws' repeal in exchange for Free Soil Party support of their candidates in the state legislature.
+<p>In the late 1840s, the Black Laws became a political issue once again. Members of the Free Soil Party pushed to have the laws repealed and were partially successful in doing so in 1849. The changes in the laws were accomplished in part because Ohio Democrats backed the Black Laws' repeal in exchange for Free Soil Party support of their candidates in the state legislature.</p>
-[[Category:History Documents]]
+==See Also==
-[[Category:Early Statehood]]
+<div class="seeAlsoText">

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-'Articles of a treaty made and concluded, at St. Mary's, in the state of Ohio, between Lewis Cass and Duncan McArthur, commissioners of the United States, with full power and authority to hold conferences, and conclude and sign a treaty or treaties, with all or any of the tribes or nations of Indians within the boundaries of the state of Ohio, of and concerning all matters interesting to the United States and the said nations of Indians, and the sachems, chiefs, and warriors, of the Wyandot, Seneca, Shawnese, and Ottawas, tribes of Indians; being supplementary to the treaty made and concluded with the said tribes, and the Delaware, Potawatamie, and Chippewa, tribes of Indians, at the foot of the Rapids of the Miami of Lake Erie, on the twenty-ninth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventeen''.
+{{infobox
+| image = [[File:.]]
-==ART. 1.==
+}}
+<p><em>Articles of a treaty made and concluded, at St. Mary's, in the state of Ohio, between Lewis Cass and Duncan McArthur, commissioners of the United States, with full power and authority to hold conferences, and conclude and sign a treaty or treaties, with all or any of the tribes or nations of Indians within the boundaries of the state of Ohio, of and concerning all matters interesting to the United States and the said nations of Indians, and the sachems, chiefs, and warriors, of the Wyandot, Seneca, Shawnese, and Ottawas, tribes of Indians; being supplementary to the treaty made and concluded with the said tribes, and the Delaware, Potawatamie, and Chippewa, tribes of Indians, at the foot of the Rapids of the Miami of Lake Erie, on the twenty-ninth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and seventeen</em>.</p>
-It is agreed, between the United States and the parties hereunto, that the several tracts of land, described in the treaty to which this is supplementary, and agreed thereby to be granted by the United States to the chiefs of the respective tribes named therein, for the use of the individuals of the said tribes, and also the tract described in the twentieth article of the said treaty, shall not be thus granted, but shall be excepted from the cession made by the said tribes to the United States, reserved for the use of the said Indians, and held by them in the same manner as Indian reservations have been heretofore held. But [it] is further agreed, that the tracts thus reserved shall be reserved for the use of the Indians named in the schedule to the said treaty, and held by them and their heirs forever, unless ceded to the United States.
+<h2>ART. 1.</h2>
+<p>It is agreed, between the United States and the parties hereunto, that the several tracts of land, described in the treaty to which this is supplementary, and agreed thereby to be granted by the United States to the chiefs of the respective tribes named therein, for the use of the individuals of the said tribes, and also the tract described in the twentieth article of the said treaty, shall not be thus granted, but shall be excepted from the cession made by the said tribes to the United States, reserved for the use of the said Indians, and held by them in the same manner as Indian reservations have been heretofore held. But [it] is further agreed, that the tracts thus reserved shall be reserved for the use of the Indians named in the schedule to the said treaty, and held by them and their heirs forever, unless ceded to the United States.</p>
-==ART. 2.==
+<h2>ART. 2.</h2>
+<p>It is also agreed that there shall be reserved for the use of the Wyandots, in addition to the reservations before made, fifty-five thousand six hundred and eighty acres of land, to be laid off in two tracts, the first to adjoin the south line of the section of six hundred and forty acres of land heretofore reserved for the Wyandot chief, the Cherokee Boy, and to extend south to the north line of the reserve of twelve miles square, at Upper Sandusky, and the other to adjoin the east line of the reserve of twelve miles square, at Upper Sandusky, and to extend east for quantity.<br /> There shall also be reserved, for the use of the Wyandots residing at Solomon's town, and on Blanchard's fork, in addition to the reservations before made, sixteen thousand acres of land, to be laid off in a square form, on the head of Blanchard's fork, the centre of which shall be at the Big Spring, on the trace leading from Upper Sandusky to fort Findlay; and one hundred and sixty acres of land, for the use of the Wyandots, on the west side of the Sandusky river, adjoining the said river, and the lower line of two sections of land, agreed, by the treaty to which this is supplementary, to be granted to Elizabeth Whitaker.<br /> There shall also be reserved, for the use of the Shawnese, in addition to the reservations before made, twelve thousand eight hundred acres of land, to be laid off adjoining the east line of their reserve of ten miles square, at Wapaughkonetta; and for the use of the Shawnese and Senecas, eight thousand nine hundred and sixty acres of land, to be laid off adjoining the west line of the reserve of forty-eight square miles at Lewistown. And the last reserve hereby made, and the former reserve at the same place, shall be equally divided by an east and west line, to be drawn through the same. And the north half of the said tract shall be reserved for the use of the Senecas who reside there, and the south half for the use of the Shawnese who reside there.<br /> There shall also be reserved for the use of the Senecas, in addition to the reservations before made, ten thousand acres of land, to be laid</p>
-It is also agreed that there shall be reserved for the use of the Wyandots, in addition to the reservations before made, fifty-five thousand six hundred and eighty acres of land, to be laid off in two tracts, the first to adjoin the south line of the section of six hundred and forty acres of land heretofore reserved for the Wyandot chief, the Cherokee Boy, and to extend south to the north line of the reserve of twelve miles square, at Upper Sandusky, and the other to adjoin the east line of the reserve of twelve miles square, at Upper Sandusky, and to extend east for quantity.<br />There shall also be reserved, for the use of the Wyandots residing at Solomon's town, and on Blanchard's fork, in addition to the reservations before made, sixteen thousand acres of land, to be laid off in a square form, on the head of Blanchard's fork, the centre of which shall be at the Big Spring, on the trace leading from Upper Sandusky to fort Findlay; and one hundred and sixty acres of land, for the use of the Wyandots, on the west side of the Sandusky river, adjoining the said river, and the lower line of two sections of land, agreed, by the treaty to which this is supplementary, to be granted to Elizabeth Whitaker.<br />There shall also be reserved, for the use of the Shawnese, in addition to the reservations before made, twelve thousand eight hundred acres of land, to be laid off adjoining the east line of their reserve of ten miles square, at Wapaughkonetta; and for the use of the Shawnese and Senecas, eight thousand nine hundred and sixty acres of land, to be laid off adjoining the west line of the reserve of forty-eight square miles at Lewistown. And the last reserve hereby made, and the former reserve at the same place, shall be equally divided by an east and west line, to be drawn through the same. And the north half of the said tract shall be reserved for the use of the Senecas who reside there, and the south half for the use of the Shawnese who reside there.<br />There shall also be reserved for the use of the Senecas, in addition to the reservations before made, ten thousand acres of land, to be laid
+<p>[*163]</p>
+<p>off on the east side of the Sandusky river, adjoining the south line of their reservation of thirty thousand acres of land, which begins on the Sandusky river, at the lower corner of William Spicer's section, and excluding therefrom the said William Spicer's section.</p>
-[*163]
+<h2>ART. 3.</h2>
+<p>It is hereby agreed that the tracts of land, which, by the eighth article of the treaty to which this is supplementary, are to be granted by the United States to the persons therein mentioned, shall never be conveyed, by them or their heirs, without the permission of the President of the United States.</p>
-off on the east side of the Sandusky river, adjoining the south line of their reservation of thirty thousand acres of land, which begins on the Sandusky river, at the lower corner of William Spicer's section, and excluding therefrom the said William Spicer's section.
+<h2>ART. 4.</h2>
+<p>The United States agree to pay to the Wyandots an additional annuity of five hundred dollars, forever; to the Shawnese, and to the Senecas of Lewistown, an additional annuity of one thousand dollars, forever; and to the Senecas an additional annuity of five hundred dollars, forever; and to the Ottawas an additional annuity of one thousand five hundred dollars, forever. And these annuities shall be paid at the places, and in the manner, prescribed by the treaty to which this is supplementary.</p>
-==ART. 3.==
+<h2>ART. 5.</h2>
+<p>This treaty shall take effect, and be obligatory on the contracting parties, as soon as the same shall be ratified by the President of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate thereof.<br /> In testimony whereof, the said Lewis Cass and Duncan McArthur, commissioners as aforesaid, and the sachems, chiefs, and warriors, of the Wyandot, Seneca, Shawanee, and Ottawa tribes of Indians, have hereunto set their hands, at St. Mary's, in the state of Ohio, this seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighteen.</p>
-It is hereby agreed that the tracts of land, which, by the eighth article of the treaty to which this is supplementary, are to be granted by the United States to the persons therein mentioned, shall never be conveyed, by them or their heirs, without the permission of the President of the United States.
+<p>Lewis Cass,<br /> Duncan McArthur<br /> Ottawas:<br /> Keueaghbon, or Bald Eagle, his x mark,<br /> Peshekata, or Marked Legs, his x mark,<br /> Shwanabe, or Muskrat, his x mark,<br /> Toutogana, or The Dog, his x mark,<br /> Tushquagon, or McCarty, his x mark,<br /> Mushkema, his x mark,<br /> Shawanees:<br /> Cuttewekasa, or Black Hoof, his x mark,<br /> Shemenetu, or Big Snake, his x mark,<br /> Biaseka, or Wolf, his x mark,<br /> Pomthe, or Walker, his x mark,<br /> Chacalawa, or Long Tail, his x mark,<br /> Pemthata, or Perry, his x mark,<br /> Red Man, or Capt. Reed, his x mark,<br /> Chiakeska, or Captain Tom, his x mark,<br /> Tecuntequa, or Elk in the Water, his x mark,<br /> Quitawepa, or Colonel Lewis, his x mark,<br /> Captain Pipe, his x mark,<br /> James Armstrong, his x mark,<br /> Ottowas:<br /> Metesheneiwa, or Bear's Man, his x mark,<br /> Oquenoxe, his x mark,<br /> Peneshaw, or Eagle, his x mark,<br /> Wyandots:<br /> Douquad, or Half King, his x mark,<br /> Rontondu, or War Pole, his x mark,<br /> Tuayaurontoyou, or Between the Logs, his x mark,<br /> Dauatout, or John Hicks his x mark,<br /> Horonu, or Cherokee Boy, his x mark,<br /> Teoudetosso, or George Punch, his x mark,<br /> Hawdoro, or Matthews, his x mark,<br /> Skoutous, his x mark,<br /> Quouqua, his x mark,<br /> Senecas:<br /> Methomea, or Civil John, his x mark,<br /> Skekoghkell, or Big Turtle, his x mark,<br /> Waghkonoxie, or White Bone, his x mark,<br /> Tochequia, or Yellow Bone, his x mark,<br /> Captain Togone, his x mark,<br /> Cunneshohant, or Harris, his x mark,<br /> Tousonecta, or his Blanket Down, his x mark,<br /> Wiping Stick, his x mark,</p>
+<p>In presence of�</p>
-==ART. 4.==
+<p>Wm. Turner, secretary,<br /> John Johnston, Indian agent,<br /> B. F. Stickney, Indian agent,<br /> B. Parke, district judge of Indiana,<br /> Jonathan Jennings, governor of Indiana,<br /> Wm. P. Rathbone, army contractor,<br /> Alexander Wolcott, jr., Indian agent,<br /> Detroit,<br /> John Conner,<br /> J. T. Chunn, major of Third Infantry,<br /> R. A. Forsyth, jr., secretary Indian Department,<br /> G. M. Grosvenor, captain Eighth Infantry.</p>
+<p>Sworn interpreters:</p>
-The United States agree to pay to the Wyandots an additional annuity of five hundred dollars, forever; to the Shawnese, and to the Senecas of Lewistown, an additional annuity of one thousand dollars, forever; and to the Senecas an additional annuity of five hundred dollars, forever; and to the Ottawas an additional annuity of one thousand five hundred dollars, forever. And these annuities shall be paid at the places, and in the manner, prescribed by the treaty to which this is supplementary.
+<p>Henry I. Hunt,<br /> John Kenzer, subagent,<br /> F. Duchouquet,<br /> W. Knaggs,<br /> A. Shane,<br /> John B. Walker,<br /> L. Jouett, Indian agent.</p>
+==See Also==
-==ART. 5.==
+<div class="seeAlsoText">
+*[[Lewis Cass]]
-This treaty shall take effect, and be obligatory on the contracting parties, as soon as the same shall be ratified by the President of the United States, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate thereof.<br />In testimony whereof, the said Lewis Cass and Duncan McArthur, commissioners as aforesaid, and the sachems, chiefs, and warriors, of the Wyandot, Seneca, Shawanee, and Ottawa tribes of Indians, have hereunto set their hands, at St. Mary's, in the state of Ohio, this seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and eighteen.
+*[[Catahecassa - Black Hoof]]
+*[[Chippewa Indians]]
-Lewis Cass,<br />Duncan McArthur<br />Ottawas:<br />Keueaghbon, or Bald Eagle, his x mark,<br />Peshekata, or Marked Legs, his x mark,<br />Shwanabe, or Muskrat, his x mark,<br />Toutogana, or The Dog, his x mark,<br />Tushquagon, or McCarty, his x mark,<br />Mushkema, his x mark,<br />Shawanees:<br />Cuttewekasa, or Black Hoof, his x mark,<br />Shemenetu, or Big Snake, his x mark,<br />Biaseka, or Wolf, his x mark,<br />Pomthe, or Walker, his x mark,<br />Chacalawa, or Long Tail, his x mark,<br />Pemthata, or Perry, his x mark,<br />Red Man, or Capt. Reed, his x mark,<br />Chiakeska, or Captain Tom, his x mark,<br />Tecuntequa, or Elk in the Water, his x mark,<br />Quitawepa, or Colonel Lewis, his x mark,<br />Captain Pipe, his x mark,<br />James Armstrong, his x mark,<br />Ottowas:<br />Metesheneiwa, or Bear's Man, his x mark,<br />Oquenoxe, his x mark,<br />Peneshaw, or Eagle, his x mark,<br />Wyandots:<br />Douquad, or Half King, his x mark,<br />Rontondu, or War Pole, his x mark,<br />Tuayaurontoyou, or Between the Logs, his x mark,<br />Dauatout, or John Hicks his x mark,<br />Horonu, or Cherokee Boy, his x mark,<br />Teoudetosso, or George Punch, his x mark,<br />Hawdoro, or Matthews, his x mark,<br />Skoutous, his x mark,<br />Quouqua, his x mark,<br />Senecas:<br />Methomea, or Civil John, his x mark,<br />Skekoghkell, or Big Turtle, his x mark,<br />Waghkonoxie, or White Bone, his x mark,<br />Tochequia, or Yellow Bone, his x mark,<br />Captain Togone, his x mark,<br />Cunneshohant, or Harris, his x mark,<br />Tousonecta, or his Blanket Down, his x mark,<br />Wiping Stick, his x mark,
+*[[Delaware Indians]]
+*[[John Johnston]]
-In presence of'
+*[[Lake Erie]]
+*[[Duncan McArthur]]
-Wm. Turner, secretary,<br />John Johnston, Indian agent,<br />B. F. Stickney, Indian agent,<br />B. Parke, district judge of Indiana,<br />Jonathan Jennings, governor of Indiana,<br />Wm. P. Rathbone, army contractor,<br />Alexander Wolcott, jr., Indian agent,<br />Detroit,<br />John Conner,<br />J. T. Chunn, major of Third Infantry,<br />R. A. Forsyth, jr., secretary Indian Department,<br />G. M. Grosvenor, captain Eighth Infantry.
+*[[Ohio]]
+*[[Ottawa Indians]]
-Sworn interpreters:
+*[[Potawatomi Indians]]
+*[[Sandusky River]]
-Henry I. Hunt,<br />John Kenzer, subagent,<br />F. Duchouquet,<br />W. Knaggs,<br />A. Shane,<br />John B. Walker,<br />L. Jouett, Indian agent.
+*[[Seneca Indians]]
-[[Category:History Documents]]
+*[[Shawnee Indians]]
-[[Category:Early Statehood]][[Category:American Indians]]
+*[[Treaty with the Wyandots, Shawnees, Senecas, and Ottawas (1818)]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{infobox
-| image = [[File:Cedar Point map.jpg]]
+| image = [[File:Cedar Point Rollercoaster; Corkscrew.jpg]]
 }}
+<p>Cedar Point is a peninsula in northern Ohio located along Lake Erie, as well as an amusement park at the same location. It is located near Sandusky, Ohio. In the nineteenth century, Cedar Point served as the site for a lighthouse and as a port for fishermen. In 1867, the peninsula became linked to a small railroad. This transportation forever changed the rural area. Within a few years, developers began constructing facilities to draw tourists to the region, including bath houses and picnic areas. The amusement park claims 1870 as its first season, when the first bathhouse and other forms of entertainment were built.</p>
-'''Cedar Point''' is a peninsula in northern Ohio located along Lake Erie, as well as an amusement park at the same location. It is located near Sandusky, Ohio. In the nineteenth century, Cedar Point served as the site for a lighthouse and as a port for fishermen. In 1867, the peninsula became linked to a small railroad. This transportation forever changed the rural area. Within a few years, developers began constructing facilities to draw tourists to the region, including bath houses and picnic areas. The amusement park claims 1870 as its first season, when the first bathhouse and other forms of entertainment were built.
+<p>Cedar Point constructed its first roller coaster, the Switchback Railway, in 1892. By the 1890s, more and more people traveled to Cedar Point. When the Cedar Point Pleasure Resort &amp; Company purchased the site in 1897, the firm paid $256,000. In the years that followed, more and more improvements were made at Cedar Point. New rides and attractions opened each year, and hotels offered overnight accommodations. In addition to tourists traveling by railroad, Cedar Point also welcomed visitors traveling by steamship from Detroit and Cleveland. Automobiles also brought greater numbers. Places like Cedar Point, Buckeye Lake, and Sandy Beach Amusement Park offered city dwellers the opportunity to escape the city heat in the summer.</p>
+<p>In the 1950s, Cedar Point underwent some changes. Part of the area became a bird sanctuary in 1954, when Dr. Dean Sheldon purchase some land next to the road to Cedar Point. This site eventually became Sheldon's Marsh State Nature Preserve. The park faced a major turning point in 1956. Land developers George Roose and Emile Legros bought Cedar Point that year, hoping to construct a housing development. Eventually the two men decide to keep the park and make it into the &quot;Disneyland of the Midwest.&quot; This goal meant that numerous improvements had to be made to Cedar Point. The amusement park drew larger numbers each year, with more than two million visitors in 1965. In the late 1970s, the company began to purchase other amusement parks in the United States. The business became known as Cedar Fair, L.P. in 1983. Four years later, Cedar Fair, L.P. went public, with shares trading on the New York Stock Exchange.</p>
-Cedar Point constructed its first roller coaster, the Switchback Railway, in 1892. By the 1890s, more and more people traveled to Cedar Point. When the Cedar Point Pleasure Resort & Company purchased the site in 1897, the firm paid $256,000. In the years that followed, more and more improvements were made at Cedar Point. New rides and attractions opened each year, and hotels offered overnight accommodations. In addition to tourists traveling by railroad, Cedar Point also welcomed visitors traveling by steamship from Detroit and Cleveland. Automobiles also brought greater numbers. Places like Cedar Point, Buckeye Lake, and Sandy Beach Amusement Park offered city dwellers the opportunity to escape the city heat in the summer.
+<p>In the past few decades, Cedar Point has claimed a number of world records. In particular, the amusement park has become known for its roller coasters. In 1978, Cedar Point opened Gemini, which set records as the tallest, fastest, and steepest roller coaster in the world at that time. Gemini's record was surpassed by another coaster, Magnum XL-200, in 1989. Two years later, Cedar Point opened a wooden coaster named Mean Streak, which was the tallest and fastest of its kind in the world. These rides were followed by the Raptor, the world's tallest and fastest inverted roller coaster, in 1994, and Mantis, the tallest and fastest stand-up roller coaster, in 1996. Cedar Point surpassed all of its previous records in 2000, when it opened the Millennium Force. This roller coaster is more than three hundred feet high and once again set the record for the tallest, fastest, and steepest roller coaster in the world. Since 1978, Cedar Point has hosted an annual event called Coaster Mania that attracts roller coaster fans in large numbers. In addition, the park claims to be the &quot;Roller Coaster Capital of the World.&quot; With its roller coasters and other features, Cedar Point has won numerous awards, including &quot;Best Amusement Park&quot; by <em>Amusement Today's</em> Golden Ticket Awards on several occasions. </p>
+==See Also==
-In the 1950s, Cedar Point underwent some changes. Part of the area became a bird sanctuary in 1954, when Dr. Dean Sheldon purchase some land next to the road to Cedar Point. This site eventually became Sheldon's Marsh State Nature Preserve. The park faced a major turning point in 1956. Land developers George Roose and Emile Legros bought Cedar Point that year, hoping to construct a housing development. Eventually the two men decide to keep the park and make it into the "Disneyland of the Midwest." This goal meant that numerous improvements had to be made to Cedar Point. The amusement park drew larger numbers each year, with more than two million visitors in 1965. In the late 1970s, the company began to purchase other amusement parks in the United States. The business became known as Cedar Fair, L.P. in 1983. Four years later, Cedar Fair, L.P. went public, with shares trading on the New York Stock Exchange.
+<div class="seeAlsoText">
+*[[Automobiles]]
-In the past few decades, Cedar Point has claimed a number of world records. In particular, the amusement park has become known for its roller coasters. In 1978, Cedar Point opened Gemini, which set records as the tallest, fastest, and steepest roller coaster in the world at that time. Gemini's record was surpassed by another coaster, Magnum XL-200, in 1989. Two years later, Cedar Point opened a wooden coaster named Mean Streak, which was the tallest and fastest of its kind in the world. These rides were followed by the Raptor, the world's tallest and fastest inverted roller coaster, in 1994, and Mantis, the tallest and fastest stand-up roller coaster, in 1996. Cedar Point surpassed all of its previous records in 2000, when it opened the Millennium Force. This roller coaster is more than three hundred feet high and once again set the record for the tallest, fastest, and steepest roller coaster in the world. Since 1978, Cedar Point has hosted an annual event called Coaster Mania that attracts roller coaster fans in large numbers. In addition, the park claims to be the "Roller Coaster Capital of the World." With its roller coasters and other features, Cedar Point has won numerous awards, including "Best Amusement Park" by ''Amusement Today's'' Golden Ticket Awards on several occasions.
+*[[Buckeye Lake]]
-[[Category:History Places]]
+*[[Cleveland, Ohio]]
-[[Category:Industrialization and Urbanization]]
+*[[Lake Erie]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-Established in Ohio during the late eighteenth century, the '''Pee Pee Settlement''' was a predominantly African-American community.
+{{infobox
+| image = [[File:.]]
+}}
+<p>Established in Ohio during the late eighteenth century, the Pee Pee Settlement was a predominantly African-American community.</p>
-Located in Pike County, the Pee Pee Settlement was located along Pee Pee Creek in Pebble Township. The creek was named for Peter Patrick, an early white resident of the area, who formerly lived in Virginia. A squatter, Patrick eventually returned to Virginia due to Native-American attacks.
+<p>Located in Pike County, the Pee Pee Settlement was located along Pee Pee Creek in Pebble Township. The creek was named for Peter Patrick, an early white resident of the area, who formerly lived in Virginia. A squatter, Patrick eventually returned to Virginia due to Native-American attacks. </p>
+<p>By the 1820s, several African Americans had settled in the area. Most black residents were former slaves from Virginia. Most residents earned a living as farmers, with some becoming sizable landowners. The community grew relatively quickly, with residents establishing a church in 1824. They constructed a school and government building soon thereafter. African-American residents also actively assisted runaway slaves along the Underground Railroad.</p>
+<p>Many white residents of Pike County objected to the African Americans' presence. Two white families, the Burkes and the Downings, which lived closest to the Pee Pee Settlement, especially despised the African Americans. On several occasions, these whites led violent attacks against the Pee Pee Settlement. On at least one occasion, whites burnt the home of a black resident, Minor Muntz. Muntz was a conductor on the Underground Railroad. Undaunted by the whites' actions, Muntz rebuilt his home.</p>
+<p>The Pee Pee Settlement remained a vibrant community until the early 1900s. By this time, the settlement lost its identity as a separate community for African Americans. With whites increasingly showing African Americans tolerance, many African Americans began to find acceptance in traditionally white communities. Difficult economic conditions also prompted many African Americans to move away. </p>
-By the 1820s, several African Americans had settled in the area. Most black residents were former slaves from Virginia. Most residents earned a living as farmers, with some becoming sizable landowners. The community grew relatively quickly, with residents establishing a church in 1824. They constructed a school and government building soon thereafter. African-American residents also actively assisted runaway slaves along the Underground Railroad.
+<p>Despite the growing opposition to slavery by some whites during the early 1800s, communities, such as the Pee Pee Settlement, illustrate the prejudice that existed in Ohio during the years before the American Civil War. Ohio was a state that did not allow slavery. Nevertheless, that did not mean that whites were open to granting African Americans equal rights. Free blacks found that it was difficult to get fair treatment, and they often formed their own communities away from whites for protection.</p>
+==See Also==
+<div class="seeAlsoText">
+*[[African Americans]]
-Many white residents of Pike County objected to the African Americans' presence. Two white families, the Burkes and the Downings, which lived closest to the Pee Pee Settlement, especially despised the African Americans. On several occasions, these whites led violent attacks against the Pee Pee Settlement. On at least one occasion, whites burnt the home of a black resident, Minor Muntz. Muntz was a conductor on the Underground Railroad. Undaunted by the whites' actions, Muntz rebuilt his home.
+*[[American Civil War]]
+*[[Ohio]]
+*[[Pike County]]
+*[[Runaway Slaves]]
-The Pee Pee Settlement remained a vibrant community until the early 1900s. By this time, the settlement lost its identity as a separate community for African Americans. With whites increasingly showing African Americans tolerance, many African Americans began to find acceptance in traditionally white communities. Difficult economic conditions also prompted many African Americans to move away.
+*[[Underground Railroad]]
+</div>
+==References==
+<div class="referencesText">
-Despite the growing opposition to slavery by some whites during the early 1800s, communities, such as the Pee Pee Settlement, illustrate the prejudice that existed in Ohio during the years before the American Civil War. Ohio was a state that did not allow slavery. Nevertheless, that did not mean that whites were open to granting African Americans equal rights. Free blacks found that it was difficult to get fair treatment, and they often formed their own communities away from whites for protection.
+#Howe, Henry. <em>Historical Collections of Ohio in Two Volumes</em>. Vol. II. Cincinnati, OH: C.J. Krehbiel &amp; Co., Printers and Binders, 1902.
+</div>
 [[Category:History Places]][[Category:Exploration To Statehood]]
-[[Category:History Places]]
+[[Category:Early Statehood]]
-[[Category:Exploration To Statehood]][[Category:Early Statehood]][[Category:African Americans]][[Category:Reform]][[Category:Communities and Counties]]
+[[Category:African Americans]]

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 | caption = A group of women kneeling on the sidewalk outside of J. C. Mader's Saloon in Bucyrus, Ohio during the Women's Temperance Crusade of 1873-1874. The women were protesting the sale of alcoholic beverages.
 }}
+<p>The issue of temperance was becoming more and more important to many Ohioans in the 1870s and 1880s. By the 1880s, state politicians began to pass legislation that attempted to control alcohol consumption in Ohio. The Republican Party was particularly sensitive to the pressures of temperance organizations, such as the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, during this era.</p>
-The issue of temperance was becoming more and more important to many Ohioans in the 1870s and 1880s. By the 1880s, state politicians began to pass legislation that attempted to control alcohol consumption in Ohio. The Republican Party was particularly sensitive to the pressures of temperance organizations, such as the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, during this era.
+<p>In 1883, Republicans took control of the state legislature and passed several laws that were related to alcohol consumption. One of these acts was the Pond Law, which placed a tax on saloons. In order to receive a liquor license, saloons had to pay a tax of between one hundred and three hundred dollars a year, depending on the community's population. In addition, the law required each saloon to pay a bond of one thousand dollars to guarantee payment of the tax. Within only two months after the law's passage, the Ohio Supreme Court ruled that this law was unconstitutional.</p>
+<p>The Republicans' stance on temperance was unpopular with immigrants in the state. The Democratic Party was able to use this dissatisfaction to gain control of state politics in the next election. Although there was growing support for temperance and for Prohibition, the majority of Ohioans did not support this movement during this era.</p>
-In 1883, Republicans took control of the state legislature and passed several laws that were related to alcohol consumption. One of these acts was the Pond Law, which placed a tax on saloons. In order to receive a liquor license, saloons had to pay a tax of between one hundred and three hundred dollars a year, depending on the community's population. In addition, the law required each saloon to pay a bond of one thousand dollars to guarantee payment of the tax. Within only two months after the law's passage, the Ohio Supreme Court ruled that this law was unconstitutional.
+==See Also==
+<div class="seeAlsoText">
-The Republicans' stance on temperance was unpopular with immigrants in the state. The Democratic Party was able to use this dissatisfaction to gain control of state politics in the next election. Although there was growing support for temperance and for Prohibition, the majority of Ohioans did not support this movement during this era.
+*[[Anti-Saloon League of America]]
-[[Category:History Documents]]
+*[[Democratic Party]]
-[[Category:Industrialization and Urbanization]][[Category:Government and Politics]]
+*[[Dow Law]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{infobox
 | image = [[File:Main Street, Dayton, Ohio.jpg]]
-| caption = View of Main Street in Dayton, Montgomery County, 	Ohio, ca. 1886-1888. This photograph is part of a 	collection compiled by Henry Howe while researching 	the 1889 edition of "Historical Collections of Ohio."
+| caption = View of Main Street in Dayton, Montgomery County, Ohio, ca. 1886-1888. This photograph is part of a collection compiled by Henry Howe while researching the 1889 edition of "Historical Collections of Ohio."
 }}
+<p>During the late nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries, to eliminate the power of city bosses, many municipalities established the position of city manager. </p>
-During the late nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries, to eliminate the power of city bosses, many municipalities established the position of city manager.
+<p>Americans were becoming more and more concerned about corruption within the political process in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. These concerns contributed to the growth of Progressivism, a major reform movement of this era. One reform instituted by Progressives in many states was to replace mayors with city managers. Often, city bosses were influential in getting their candidates elected to city government. Progressives believed that connections to city bosses and their political machines often kept mayors from acting in the public's interest. In order to get rid of the corruption within city politics, reformers advocated that cities hire a professional, known as a city manager, to run the government. This person would have no political obligations since he/she was not elected. Typically, city managers were college educated, receiving special training in city operations and business management.</p>
+<p>Dayton became the first city in Ohio and the first major city in the nation to adopt a city manager. Soon, Springfield, Ashtabula, and Sandusky followed Dayton's example. More than thirty other Ohio cities eventually made the transition from an elected mayor to a city manager, although not all kept this new form of government in the long-term. Both Akron and Cleveland experimented briefly with city managers but chose to return to mayors. </p>
-Americans were becoming more and more concerned about corruption within the political process in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. These concerns contributed to the growth of Progressivism, a major reform movement of this era. One reform instituted by Progressives in many states was to replace mayors with city managers. Often, city bosses were influential in getting their candidates elected to city government. Progressives believed that connections to city bosses and their political machines often kept mayors from acting in the public's interest. In order to get rid of the corruption within city politics, reformers advocated that cities hire a professional, known as a city manager, to run the government. This person would have no political obligations since he/she was not elected. Typically, city managers were college educated, receiving special training in city operations and business management.
+==See Also==
+<div class="seeAlsoText">
-Dayton became the first city in Ohio and the first major city in the nation to adopt a city manager. Soon, Springfield, Ashtabula, and Sandusky followed Dayton's example. More than thirty other Ohio cities eventually made the transition from an elected mayor to a city manager, although not all kept this new form of government in the long-term. Both Akron and Cleveland experimented briefly with city managers but chose to return to mayors.
+*[[Akron, Ohio]]
-[[Category:History Topics]]
+*[[City Bosses]]
-[[Category:Industrialization and Urbanization]]
+*[[Cleveland, Ohio]]

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 | image = [[File:Montgomery map.jpg]]
 }}
+<p>First settled in 1796, the community of Montgomery is a suburb of Cincinnati in Hamilton County. In the early days of the Northwest Territory, the area was too dangerous for white settlement because of Native American attacks. General Anthony Wayne's defeat of the Indians in 1794 encouraged farmers to begin moving to the region. Several families from New York moved to Montgomery, and named the small village after their former home in the East.</p>
-First settled in 1796, the community of Montgomery is a suburb of Cincinnati in Hamilton County. In the early days of the Northwest Territory, the area was too dangerous for white settlement because of Native American attacks. General Anthony Wayne's defeat of the Indians in 1794 encouraged farmers to begin moving to the region. Several families from New York moved to Montgomery, and named the small village after their former home in the East.
+<p>The town was a coach stop on the Cincinnati-Zanesville Road, later known as the Montgomery Pike. In addition to two taverns, Montgomery also had a gristmill and a carding mill to process local agricultural products.</p>
+<p>In spite of the arrival of railroad lines in the 1880s, the community remained small throughout the first century and a half of its existence. It was not until the 1960s and 1970s that the population really began to grow as people working in the nearby city of Cincinnati settled in Montgomery.</p>
 The town was a coach stop on the Cincinnati-Zanesville Road, later known as the Montgomery Pike. In addition to two taverns, Montgomery also had a gristmill and a carding mill to process local agricultural products.
-−
 In spite of the arrival of railroad lines in the 1880s, the community remained small throughout the first century and a half of its existence. It was not until the 1960s and 1970s that the population really began to grow as people working in the nearby city of Cincinnati settled in Montgomery.
-−
 <br />
-[[Category:History Places]]
+==See Also==
-[[Category:Exploration To Statehood]]
+<div class="seeAlsoText">

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{infobox
-| image = [[File:Cleveland Municipal Stadium.jpg]]
+| image = [[File:Cleveland Municipal Stadium.jpeg]]
 | caption = Postcard showing an elevated view of Cleveland Municipal Stadium in Cleveland, Ohio, postmarked 1940. Built in 1931, the stadium was used by both the Cleveland Indians baseball team and the Cleveland Browns football team. Municipal Stadium was demolished in 1996.
 }}
+<p>In 1945, Arthur B. McBride and Robert H. Gries founded the Cleveland Browns, a professional football team. The team would become one of the most successful organizations to ever participate in professional sports. From 1946 to 1983, the Browns won eight league championships and eighteen divisional titles. The team also made the playoffs twenty-one times during this same span.</p>
-In 1945, Arthur B. McBride and Robert H. Gries founded the '''Cleveland Browns''', a professional football team. The team would become one of the most successful organizations to ever participate in professional sports. From 1946 to 1983, the Browns won eight league championships and eighteen divisional titles. The team also made the playoffs twenty-one times during this same span.
+<p>The Cleveland Browns's first season occurred in 1946. At this point in time, the team played in the American Football Conference, although it would join the National Football League at the end of the AFC's 1949 season. Paul E. Brown served as the Browns's first head coach and remained in this position until 1962. McBride named the team after Brown. The Browns' organization won the AFC championship for the four seasons that it played in the league. Upon switching to the NFL, the Browns won this league's championship the first year that it participated in the league.</p>
+<p>In 1953, Arthur McBride sold his controlling interest in the Cleveland Browns to Sol Silberman and a group of other investors. Robert Gries and his son continued to hold a minority stake share in the team. Two years later, Silberman and Gries became the two owners of the team, with Silberman having bought out the other owners. During this same period, the Browns won two league championships (1954 and again in 1955). Unfortunately for the Browns and the team's fans, the organization endured its first losing season in 1956, principally due to the retirement of several players, including quarterback Otto Graham. That same year, the team drafted Jim Brown, who became one of the greatest running backs in professional football's history.</p>
-The Cleveland Browns's first season occurred in 1946. At this point in time, the team played in the American Football Conference, although it would join the National Football League at the end of the AFC's 1949 season. Paul E. Brown served as the Browns's first head coach and remained in this position until 1962. McBride named the team after Brown. The Browns' organization won the AFC championship for the four seasons that it played in the league. Upon switching to the NFL, the Browns won this league's championship the first year that it participated in the league.
+<p>In 1961, Arthur B. Modell purchased a majority interest in the Browns. Over the next thirty years, Modell became vilified by Browns fans. In 1963, he fired Paul Brown, the team's only coach in the organization's first seventeen years of existence. Under new coach Blanton Collier, the team won the NFL championship in 1964 and four division titles between 1965 and 1969. During the 1970s, Collier, Nick Skorich (1971-1974), Forrest Gregg (1975-1977), and Sam Rutigliano (1978-1984) all served as head coach of the team. While the Browns continued to win on the playing field, they failed to attain a league championship during this period and won only one division title (1980). Due to a poor start to the 1984-1985 season, Modell fired Rutigliano and replaced him with Marty Schottenheimer.</p>
+<p>Under Schottenheimer's tenure, the Browns continued to proper, but the team, once again, did not attain its former success. With Bernie Kosar as quarterback, the Browns won a divisional title in 1986. The Browns participated in the playoffs in during every season from 1985 to 1989, but from 1990 to 1995, the organization made only one postseason appearance. Schottenheimer left the Browns in 1988, and subsequent coaches, including Bud Carson (1989-1990), Jim Shofner (1990), and Bill Belichick (1991-1995) all experienced losing records while leading the team.</p>
-In 1953, Arthur McBride sold his controlling interest in the Cleveland Browns to Sol Silberman and a group of other investors. Robert Gries and his son continued to hold a minority stake share in the team. Two years later, Silberman and Gries became the two owners of the team, with Silberman having bought out the other owners. During this same period, the Browns won two league championships (1954 and again in 1955). Unfortunately for the Browns and the team's fans, the organization endured its first losing season in 1956, principally due to the retirement of several players, including quarterback Otto Graham. That same year, the team drafted Jim Brown, who became one of the greatest running backs in professional football's history.
+<p>At the end of the 1995 season, Art Modell decided to move the Cleveland Browns to Baltimore, Maryland. The city of Cleveland retained the rights to the Browns name, and Modell renamed his organization the Baltimore Ravens. The principal reason for the move centered upon Modell's belief that the city government and the team's fans were not supportive enough of the organization. The NFL eventually awarded Cleveland a new team, which began play in 1999. Between 1999 and 2006, the Browns had four coaches, including Chris Palmer (1999-2000), Butch Davis (2001-2004), Terry Robeski (2004) and Romeo Crennel, each of whom experienced losing records with the organization, although Davis did take the team to the playoffs in 2002. </p>
+==See Also==
-In 1961, Arthur B. Modell purchased a majority interest in the Browns. Over the next thirty years, Modell became vilified by Browns fans. In 1963, he fired Paul Brown, the team's only coach in the organization's first seventeen years of existence. Under new coach Blanton Collier, the team won the NFL championship in 1964 and four division titles between 1965 and 1969. During the 1970s, Collier, Nick Skorich (1971-1974), Forrest Gregg (1975-1977), and Sam Rutigliano (1978-1984) all served as head coach of the team. While the Browns continued to win on the playing field, they failed to attain a league championship during this period and won only one division title (1980). Due to a poor start to the 1984-1985 season, Modell fired Rutigliano and replaced him with Marty Schottenheimer.
+<div class="seeAlsoText">
+*[[Paul Brown]]
-Under Schottenheimer's tenure, the Browns continued to proper, but the team, once again, did not attain its former success. With Bernie Kosar as quarterback, the Browns won a divisional title in 1986. The Browns participated in the playoffs in during every season from 1985 to 1989, but from 1990 to 1995, the organization made only one postseason appearance. Schottenheimer left the Browns in 1988, and subsequent coaches, including Bud Carson (1989-1990), Jim Shofner (1990), and Bill Belichick (1991-1995) all experienced losing records while leading the team.
+*[[Cleveland, Ohio]]
+*[[Bernie J. Kosar Jr.]]
-At the end of the 1995 season, Art Modell decided to move the Cleveland Browns to Baltimore, Maryland. The city of Cleveland retained the rights to the Browns name, and Modell renamed his organization the Baltimore Ravens. The principal reason for the move centered upon Modell's belief that the city government and the team's fans were not supportive enough of the organization. The NFL eventually awarded Cleveland a new team, which began play in 1999. Between 1999 and 2006, the Browns had four coaches, including Chris Palmer (1999-2000), Butch Davis (2001-2004), Terry Robeski (2004) and Romeo Crennel, each of whom experienced losing records with the organization, although Davis did take the team to the playoffs in 2002.
+*[[Arthur B. Modell]]
-[[Category:History Organizations]]
+*[[National Football League]]
-[[Category:Great Depression and World War II]]
+</div>

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-On March 5, 1996, three thousand workers, members of the United Auto Workers, went on strike at two General Motors (GM) parts plants in Dayton, Ohio, causing GM production facilities across the United States close.
+{{infobox
+| image = [[File:.]]
-The striking workers opposed General Motors' practice of contracting work out to non-GM plants, a violation of the GM workers' contract. They also hoped to gain job security, as GM had been closing plants throughout the 1990s.
+}}
+<p>On March 5, 1996, three thousand workers, members of the United Auto Workers, went on strike at two General Motors (GM) parts plants in Dayton, Ohio, causing GM production facilities across the United States close.</p>
-Due to a lack of parts, GM plants across the United States shut down. By the end of the strike's first week, nearly seventy-five thousand GM workers were idle. The company was losing nearly fifty million dollars per day due to all of the plant closures. The strike ended on March 22, 1996, when the workers and GM reached an agreement, which included the two Dayton plants not facing closure in the near future. The strike symbolized growing attempts by automakers to cut costs and the fears of workers that their jobs were in jeopardy because of these cuts.
+<p>The striking workers opposed General Motors' practice of contracting work out to non-GM plants, a violation of the GM workers' contract. They also hoped to gain job security, as GM had been closing plants throughout the 1990s.</p>
-[[Category:History Events]]
+<p>Due to a lack of parts, GM plants across the United States shut down. By the end of the strike's first week, nearly seventy-five thousand GM workers were idle. The company was losing nearly fifty million dollars per day due to all of the plant closures. The strike ended on March 22, 1996, when the workers and GM reached an agreement, which included the two Dayton plants not facing closure in the near future. The strike symbolized growing attempts by automakers to cut costs and the fears of workers that their jobs were in jeopardy because of these cuts.</p>
-[[Category:Towards the 21st Century]][[Category:Transportation]]
+==See Also==

@@ Line 3: / Line 3: @@
 | caption = Ohio's Early Historic Periods Timeline
 }}
+<p>A timeline of Ohio's Major Historic Periods.</p>
-A timeline of Ohio's Major Historic Periods.
+<p> Click on the timeline to see an enlarged view. </p>
+==See Also==
-Click on the timeline to see an enlarged view.
+<div class="seeAlsoText">
-[[Category:History Events]]
+*[[American Frontier]]
-[[Category:Exploration To Statehood]]
+*[[British Era]]